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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA 


DEPARTMENT  OF 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  AND  SOCIOLOGY 


COMPARATIVE  FEDERAL 
INSTITUTIONS 

An  Analytical  Reference  Syllabus 


BY 

GEORGE  ELLIOTT  HOWARD,  Ph.  D, 

Head  Professor  of  Political  Science  and  Sociology 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY 
1907 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA 

DEPARTMENT  OF 

POLITICAL  SCIENCE  AND  SOCIOLOGY 


COMPARATIVE  FEDERAL 
INSTITUTIONS 

An  Analytical  Reference  Syllabus 


BY 

GEORGE  ELLIOTT  HOWARD,  Ph.  D. 

Head  Professor  of  Political  Science  and  Sociology 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY 
1907 


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ANALYTICAL  INDEX. 


Pages 
Chapter  I.  Federal  Institutions  in  Greece,  Italy,  and  Western 

Europe 5-20 

I.  Character  of  the  Course 5-6 

II.  Characteristics  and  General  Principles  of  Federal  Gov- 
ernment         6-8 

III.  Characteristics     and      General      Principles,     Continued. 

Freeman's  Views   9 

IV.  Federal  Institutions  in  Greece:  the  Lesser  Leagues 10-12 

V.  Origin  and  Constitution  of  the  Achaean  League 12-14 

VI.  Historical  Development  of  the  Achaean  League 14-17 

VII.  Federal  Institutions  in  Italy  and  Western  Europe 17-20 

Chapter  II.  Origin  and  Character  of  tiJe  Federal  Constitution 

OF   the  United   States 21-48 

VIII.  The  "United   Colotiies  of  New  England" 21-24 

IX.  Franklin's  Plan  of  Union,  1754 24-26 

X,  Federal   Sentiment,   1763-1775 26-27 

XI.  Character  of  the  Confederation,  1781-1789 27-30 

XII.  Origin  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787 30-34 

XIII.  The  Federal  Convention:   Principal  Plans  and  Compro- 
mises     34-37 

XIV.  The  Federal  Convention:    Completion   and   Ratification 

of  the   Constitution 37-41 

XV.  Sources  and  Character  of  the  Constitution 41-46 

XVI.  John  Marshall  and  the  Interpretation  of  the  Constitu- 
tion  46-48 

Chapter  III.  Origin  and  Character  of  the  Federal  Constitution 

OF  Switzerland 49-82 

XVII.  Preliminaries  of  Swiss  Federal  History 49-51 

XVIII.  The  League  of  Three  Cantons 52-53 

XIX.  The  League  of  Eight  Cantons 53-56 

XX.  Development  of  the  League  of  Eight  Cantons 56-59 

XXI.  The  League  of  Thirteen  Cantons 59-62 

XXII.  From  the  Helvetic  Revolution  to  1848 62-65 

XXIII.  General  Character  of  the  Swiss  Constitution 65-66 

XXIV.  The   Federal   Assembly 67-68 

XXV.  The   Federal   Council 69-70 

XXVI.  The  Federal  Chancery  and  the  Federal  Tribunal 70-71 

(3) 


251305 


4  ANALYTICAL   INDEX. 

Pages 

XXVII.  Amendments  and  Miscellaneous 72-75 

XXVIII.  State   and   Local  Government 75-77 

XXIX.  Swiss   Party   Government 77-79 

XXX.  The  Referendum  and  Initiative 79-82 

Chaptee  IV.  Origin  and  Character  of  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion OF  the  Dominion  of  Canada 83-104 

XXXI.  Literature  Available  for  the  Course 83-86 

XXXII.  Struggle  for  Free  Institutions,   1763-1837 86-89 

XXXIII.  The  Rebellion  of  1837  and  Lord   Durham's  Re- 

port         89-92 

XXXIV.  Origin  of  the  Federal  Constitution 92-94 

XXXV.  General  Character  of  the  Constitution 94-95 

XXXVI.  The   Dominion    Parliament 96-99 

XXXVII.  The  Executive    99-100 

XXXVIII.  The  Canadian  Judicial  System 100-102 

XXXIX.  The  Provincial  and  Local  Governments 102-104 

Chapter  V.  Origin  and  Character  of  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion OF  THE  Australian  Commonwealth 105-127 

XL.  Literature  Available  for  the  Course 105-108 

XLI.  Discovery,   Exploration,   and   Colonization  of  Aus- 
tralia      108-109 

XLII.  Founding  of  the  Australian  Colonies 109-111 

XLIII.  The  Movement  for  Federation,  1846-1890 111-113 

XLIV.  The  Defence  Problem  and  the  Conference  of  1890.  .113-114 
XLV.  The    National    Australasian    Convention    and    the 

Constitution   of    1891 114-116 

XLVI.  Triumph  of  the  Federal  Movement 116-119 

XLVII.  Greneral  Character  of  the  Federal  Constitution 119-120 

XLVIII.  The  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth 120-124 

XLIX.  The  Executive    124-125 

L.  Judicature,    Finance,    Miscellaneous 125-127 

Chapter  VI.  Select  References  for  German  and  Latin   Fed- 
eral iNSTnuTiONS   / 128-133 

LI.  Literature  for  Study  of  the  German  Empire 128-131 

LII.  Literature  for  Study  of  Mexico  and  Argentina 131-133 


A  COMPARATIVE  HISTORY  OF  FEDERAL 
INSTITUTIONS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


INTRODUCTORY    STUDY    OP    FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS   IN 
GREECE,  ITALY,  AND  WESTERN  EUROPE. 


Section  I.     Character  of  the  Course. 

I.  Nature  and  Scope  of  Institutional  History. 

1.  What  is  an  institution? 

2.  What   is   a   constitution?     Relation    of   constitutional 

history  to  general  institutional  history?     To  culture- 
history  ? 

3.  Scientific  value  of  the  study  of  institutions. 

II.  Nature  and  Scope  of  Federal  Institutions. 

1.  Definition  for  historical  purposes. 

2.  Practical  and  scientific  value  of  the  study  of  federal 

institutions. 

3.  Examples  of  federal  governments. 

III.  The  Federal  Governments  Treated  in  this  Course. 

1.  The  Achaean  League:  with  a  comparative  view  of  the 

Aetolian  League  and  the*  lesser  examples  of  federal 
unions  in  Greece  and  Italy. 

2.  The  United  States:  origin  and  constitution. 

3.  Switzerland. 

4.  Canada. 

5.  Australia. 

6.  The  German  Empire. 

7.  The    Latin    American    federal    governments     (a    sum- 

mary) . 

IV.  Method  of  Study  and  Treatment. 

V.  Literature  (see  the  "Special  Card  Catalogue"). 

1.  Texts  and  maps. 

(5) 


b  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

2.  Sources. 

3.  Secondary  authorities. 

REFERENCES. 

Freman,  Federal  Government,  1-6;  Hart,  Federal  Government,  1  ff.; 
Jellinek,  Staatenverbindungen,  3-16. 


Section  II.  Characteristics  and  General  Principles  of 
Federal  Government  as  Compared  with  Otpier  Forms 
OF  Political  Organization. 

I.  The  Problem  of  Sovereignty  (Hart,  11-12;  Freeman,  6-13; 
Jellinek,  Staatenverbindiifigen,  3-58,  passim;  idem,  Gesetz 
und  Verordnung;  Burgess,  Political  Science,  I,  52  ff. ;  idem, 
in  Pol.  Sc.  Quart.,  Ill  (1888),  334  ff.;  Willoughby,  Nature 
of  the  State,  chaps,  ix,  x,  xi,  181-308;  Crane  and  Moses, 
Politics,  33-46;  Von  Hoist,  Constitutional  History,  I,  5  ff. ; 
Cooley,  Constitutional  Limitations,  3-4;  Story,  Com- 
mentaries, I,  sees.  207-208;  Bluntschli,  Theory  of  the  State. 
492-512;  idem.,  *^^ Sovereignty,"  in  Lalor,  Cyclopedia,  III, 
763-67;  Austin,  Jurisprudence,  I,  220  ff. ;  Giddings,  ^'Sover- 
eignty and  Government,"  in  Pol.  Sc.  Quart.,  XXI,  1-28; 
Dunning,  ''Bodin  on  Sovereignty,"  in  Pol.  Sc.  Quart.,  XI, 
82-104;  Dewey,  "Austin's  Theory  of  Sovereignty,"  In  Pol. 
Sc.  Quurt.,  IX,  31-52;  Piatt,  ''State,  Sovereign,  Govern- 
ment," in  Pol.  Sc.  Quart.,  X,  292-323;  Ritchie,  in  Annals 
of  Am.  Academy  (1891),  I,  385-411;  Wheaton,  International 
Law,  Part  I,  chap,  ii ;  Twiss,  International  Law,  sees.  12-23 ; 
Calvo,  Droit  International,  I,  168  ff. ;  Bliss,  Of  Sovereignty 
(1885);  Schulze,  Lehrhuch,  I,  sees.  15-17;  Arndt,  Stoat s- 
recht,  38  ff.,  69,  41;  Brie,  Theorie  der  Staatenverhindungen, 
21,  passim). 

1.  Theories  of  sovereignty. 
a.  Bodin's  theory. 
h.  Hobbes's  theory. 

c.  Rousseau's  theory. 

d.  Bluntschli's  theory. 

e.  Jellinek's  theory. 

f.  Burgess's  theory. 

g.  Willoughby's  theory. 
h.  Other  theories. 


GREECE  AND   WESTERN   EUROPE.  T 

2.  Special  questions. 

a.  May  sovereignty  be  divided? 

J).  May  there  exist  a  "dual  sovereignty"?  (See  Tiede- 

man,  Unwritten  Constitution.) 
G.  How  or  by  whom  is  sovereignty  exercised? 
d.  Where  is  sovereignty  located?    Is  it,  for  the  time 

being,  wholly  vested  in  the  government?     (See 

Willoughby,  205  ff.) 

II.  Nature  of  Federal  Government. 

1.  Queries  as  to  mode  of  formation. 

a.  Through  union  of  independent  states. 

h.  Through  subdivision  of  a  centralized  state. 

2.  Leading  theories. 

a.  The  compact  or  treaty  theory   ( Calhoun,  Works, 

I,  190;  Von  Hoist,  I,  chap.  i). 
&.  The  constitution  theory, 
c.  The  social  or  historical  theory  (as  applied  to  the 

United  States). 

3.  Is  federal    government    always    the    result    of    com- 

promise? 

4.  Is  a  federal  government  necessarily  representative? 

III.  Forms  of  the  State  (Aristotle,  Politics,  III,  4,  5;  Bur- 
gess, Political  Science,  I,  68-82;  Bluntschli,  Theory  of  the 
State,  329  ff.;  Willoughby,  Nature  of  the  State,  351-79). 

1.  Aristotle's  theory. 

2.  Burgess's  theory. 

3.  Willoughby's  theory. 

4.  Other  theories. 

IV.  Classification  of  Combinations  of  States. 

1.  Non-federal   combinations    (Hart,   12-16;   Jellinek,   63- 
171,  197-253). 
a.  Subordinate  states. 

1)  Protectorates  and  "spheres  of  influence." 

2)  Colonies   and   dependencies    (Woolsey,   Polit- 

ical Science,  II,  146-59;  Burgess,  I,  68-82; 
Freeman,  23-30;  Fiske,  American  Political 
Ideas,  73-85;  Bluntschli,  485  ff.;  Jellinek, 
63-8,  113-116;  Twiss,  sees.  24-41;  Ashjey, 
American  Federal  State,  7  ff. ;  Willoughby, 
chap.  x). 


8  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

h.  Conjunctive   unions    (see   literature   in   Hart,   14, 
n.  3). 

1)  The  Personalunion  (Jellinek,  82-8;  Bluntschli, 

487). 

2)  The    Realunion:      Norway-Sweden,     Austria- 

Hungary,  etc.  (Jellinek,  197-253;  Juraschek, 
Personal-  und  Realunion ^  1878). 
c.  Associations  of  states. 

1)  Treaty. 

2)  Alliance. 

3)  League. 

4)  The  system  of  states  or  balance  of  powers. 

5)  The  community  or  family  of  nations. 

2.  Federal  combinations  (Hart,  19-21;  Freeman,  8-13; 
Willoughby,  The  State,  chap,  x;  idem,  Am. 
Const.  System,  chap,  i;  Westerkamp,  Staaten- 
ibund  und  Bundesstaat;  Ashley,  7  ff. ;  Jellinek, 
172-97,  253  ff . ;  Wheaton,  Part  I,  chap,  ii ;  Twiss, 
sees.  37,  54;  Bluntschli,  487;  Woolsey,  II,"  147-8, 
166-170;  Wharton,  Commentaries,  sec.  137). 

a.  The  Staatenstaat :  question  as  to  its  proper  classi- 
fication? Examples,  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  the 
fief,  Turkey,  etc. 

6.  The  Staatenbund  or  confederation :  action  on  state 
governments;  example,  the  United  States  before 
1789.  Question  of  two  varieties?  (Jellinek,  184 
ff.). 

G.  The  Bundesstaat  or  federal  union:  example,  the 
United  States  since  1789. 

V.  Political  Conditions  of  Federal  Government  (Hart,  22-26, 
180,  bibliography). 

1.  How  formed:   union  or  segregation. 

2.  Causes  favoring  the  formation. 

3.  Advantages  and  disadvantages. 

4.  May  be  monarchical  or  republican. 

REFERENCES. 
Freeman,  Federal  Oovernment,  chap,  ii,  in  part;  Hart,  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, chap,  i;  Brie,  Theorie,  52  ff.;  Jellinek,  Staatenverhindungen, 
as  cited;  Federalist,  Nos.  9,  21,  39;  Dicey,  Law  and  the  Constitution, 
131-152;  Burgess,  I,  142-154,  184-252;  Mill,  Representative  Government, 
301;  Ashley,  197  ff.;  Bernard,  Lectures  on  the  American  War  (1861), 
68-72;  and  the  references  in  the  syllabus  and  in  Hart. 


GREECE    AND    WESTERN    EUROPE.  9 

Section   III.     Characteristics  and   General  Principles  of 
Federal  Government  (continued)  :  Freehands  Views. 

I.  Characteristics  of  Federal   Government   in   Greece    (Free- 
man, 15  ff.). 

1.  Character  of  the  city-state  (Bluntschli,  Theory  of  the 

State,  34  ff.). 
a.  Municipal  character. 
t.  Either   democratic   or   aristocratic:    the  tyranny, 

definition? 

c.  Condition  of  the  dependent  city  as  compared  with 

a  member  of  a  federation  or  with  a  colony. 

d.  Slight  means  of  incorporation;  case  of  Athens;  of 

Italian  cities;  of  Swiss  cantons;  of  Rome;  town 
autonomy  in  mediaeval  Europe,  how  modified  by 
the  empire? 

e.  Varieties  of  internal  constitution  and  of  external 

and  internal  relations, 
•f.  Advantages  of  the  city-state  (Freeman,  29-39). 
g.  Disadvantages   (Freeman,  39-49). 

2.  System  of  large  states  compared  with  that  of  smali 

states. 
a.  Definition  of  large  states   (Freeman,  49-57). 
6.  Position  of  the  capital. 

c.  Representative  character  of  the  assembly;  excep- 

tions: the  Napoleonic  universal  suffrage;  the 
American  president. 

d.  General     view:     advantages     and     disadvantages 

(Freeman,  57-68). 

II.  Theory  of  Federal  Government  as  a  Compromise  between 
Small  and  Large  States  (Freeman,  13-14,  69-83). 

1.  Avoids    the    extreme   evils    and    advantages    of    small 

states. 

2.  Can  there  be  a  federal  monarchy? 

3.  As  to  territory. 

4.  As  to  political  education. 

5.  The  component  state  as  compared  with  the  kingdom 

or  the  consolidated  republic. 

III.  General  Results  of  Modern  Federalism  (Freeman,  85-94). 

1.  In  the  United  States:  alleged  ease  of  secession. 

2.  In  Switzerland. 

See  Freeman,  Federal  Government,  chap.  ii. 


10  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

Section  IV.     Federal  Institutions  in  Greece:    The  Lesser 

Leagues. 

I.  The  Amphiktyonies. 

1.  The  Amphiktyonic  Council  at  Delphi    (Grote,  Index; 

Thirlwall,  chap.  61,  passim;  Freeman,  chap,  iii; 

Smith,  Dictionary  of  Antiquities;  Sainte  Croix, 

Anciens  Gouvernemens  Federatifs). 
a.  Error  in  supposing  it  to  be  a  federal  government. 
J).  It  was  a  religious,  not  a  political  body;  yet  not  a 

clerical  body. 

c.  A  union  of  tribes  not  of  cities;  votes  not  fairly 

distributed. 

d.  Use  of  representation. 

e.  Examples  of  the  activity  of  the  council. 

2.  Many  lesser  Amphiktyonies  in  Hellas. 

II.  The  Phokian  League. 

1.  Uncertain  date  of  origin. 

2.  Why  yie  earlier  leagues  arose  in  backward  tribes? 

3.  Phokian,  the  capitol:   why  a  capital  city  not  chosen? 

III.  The  Akarnanian  League. 

1.  Evidence  of  its  existence,  431-169  B.  C. 

2.  Places  of  meeting:  Olpai,  Stratos,  Leukas,  Thourion. 

3.  Constitution. 

a.  OflScers:  A  general  (strategos)  or  president;  priest 
of  the  Aktian  Apollo;  secretary  of  state;  other 
magistrates. 

h.  Senate  and  assembly. 

c.  Control  of  diplomatic  relations;  a  non-exclusive 
federal  coinage. 

IV.  The  Epeirot  League  (229  B.  C). 

1.  Early  republican   development  of  Chaonia  and  Thes- 

protis. 

2.  Monarchical  constitution  of  Molossis. 

3.  Evidence  of  the  existence  of  a   federation   after  229 

B.  C. :  federal  ambassadors,  coinage,  and  generals. 

V.  The  Boeotian  League  (Freeman,  120-144). 

1.  Its  lesson  for  the  student  of  federal  institutions. 

a.  Dangerous  preponderance  of  the  capital,  Thebes. 
&.  Why  Boeotia  better  suited  for  a  Synoikismos  or 
consolidate  city-state,  like  Athens. 


GREECE   AND    WESTERN    EUROPE.  11 

2.  History. 

a.  First  period,  776-387  B.  C. 

1)^  Existence  of  both  Amphiktyony  and  federal 
league. 

2)  Constitution:    subordinate   districts;    11    (or 

13)     boeotarchs;    four    senates;    arxihon    or 
nominal  chief. 

3)  Oppression  of  the  other  towns  by  Thebes;  les- 

son from  the  treatment  of  Plataia   (519  B. 
C),  Thespia,  and  Orchomenos. 

4)  Peace  of  Antalkidas,  387  B.  C:  dissolution 

of  the  League  by  Sparta. 
l.  Second  period,  387-335  B.  C. 

1)  Career  of  Pelopidas,  379-364. 

2)  Career     of     Epameinondas,     379-362:     frees 

Boeotia  at  Leuktra,  Sf^  B.  C. 

3)  Federal    league    revived;    treatment    of    the 

towns. 

4)  Philip    of    Macedonia    defeats    Thebans    and 

Athenians  at  Chaironeia,  338  B.  C;  Thebes 
destroyed,  335  B.  C. 
c.  Third   period,   335-172   B.    C. 

1)  Thebes  restored  by  Kassander,  316  B.  C. 

2)  The  League  restored. 

3)  The  new  constitution  (Freeman,  143). 

VI.  Various   Attempts   at   Federal    Systems    (Freeman,    145- 
154).  " 

VII.  The  Arkadian  League  (370  B.  C). 

1.  League  founded  by  Lykomedes  of  Mantineia;  work  of 

Epameinondas. 

2.  Foundation  of  the  capital,  Megalopolis,  370  B.  C. 

3.  Constitution. 

VIII.  The  Lykian  League,  168  B.  C,  to  Claudius,  41-54  A.  D. 

1.  The  Lykians  not  a  Greek  people. 

2.  Great  importance  of  the  federal  constitution. 

a.  Apportionment  of  votes  in  the  assembly. 
6.  Details  of  the  constitution  given  by  Strabo  (XIV, 
3). 

REFERENCES. 
Freeman,   Federal  Government,   chaps,   iii-iv;    Hart,   27-31,   bibliog- 
raphies; Grote,  History  of  Greece,  Index  at  various  names;  Thirlwall, 


12  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

History  of  Greece,  Vol.  II;  Freeman,  in  Essays,  1st  series,  228-55; 
Woolsey,  Political  Science,  II,  175-194;  May,  Democracy  in  Europe,  I, 
48-9,  129-31;  Mann,  RepuMics,  43-9,  77-8,  118-29,  Fiske,  American  Po- 
litical Ideas,  59,  75-77.  For  getieral  readings  on  Greek  history,  see 
Bury,  History  of  Greece;  Cox,  Athenian  Empire;  Sankey,  Spartan  and 
Theban  Supremacies;  Curteis,  Macedonian  Empire  (Epochs  series) ; 
and  other  short  manuals.  For  more  extended  study,  see  the  works 
of  Sainte-Croix,  Tittmann,  Biirgel,  and  Kortum. 

Freeman's  foot-notes  are  a  guide  to  Strabo,  Pausatiias,  Xenophon, 
Thucydides,  Livy,  Polybios,  Aristotle,  and  other  sources. 


Section    V.     Origin    and    Constitution    of    the    Achaean 
League,  281-146  B.  C. 

I.  Character  of  the  Later  History  of  Greece  (Freeman,  170- 
184). 

1.  The  literature;  Polybios  and  his  age;  Thirlwall;  Free- 

man; Niebuhr;  Droysen. 

2.  Comparison  with  earlier  period;  marked  by  the  rise 

of  federal  institutions. 

3.  Rivalry  of  Achaea  and  the  Antigonids  of  Macedonia; 

Hellenic  patriotism  of  the  Achaean  statesmen. 

II.  Early  History  of  Achaea;  the  Old  League  of  12  Cities 
(Freeman,  185-191) ;  dissolved,  288,  by  Antigonos  Gonatas. 

III.  Formation  of  the  New  League,  280,  by  union  of  Patrai  and 
Dyme;  Joined  by  Tritaia  and  Pharai.  Aigion  Joins,  275 
B.  C;  Steady  Growth  to  251  B.  C. 

IV.  Character  of  Markos  of  Keryneia,  the  Founder;  of  Iseas, 
Tyrant  of  that  City;  Nature  of  a  Creek  Tyranny;  the  Later 
Tyrants  Supported  by  Macedon  Compared  with  the  Earlier. 

V.  The  Achaean  Federal  Constitution  (Freeman,  197-251; 
Dubois,  Les  Ligtws  Molienne  et  AcUeenne;  Thirlwall,  II, 
374  ff.). 

1.  Sources   of   information.     Was   the   constitution   ''en- 

acted" as  a  whole?     (Thirlwall,  II,  375;  Freeman, 
198). 

2.  In    character    the    constitution    was    democratic    and 

strictly  federal. 
a.  The  component  cities  had  independent  control  of 

internal  affairs. 
6.  Some   of  the   cities   had   dependent   districts,   for 

example,  Cornith  and  Megalopolis. 


GREECE   AND    WESTERN    EUROPE.  13 

G.  But  there  was  a  tendency  to  assimilate  their  laws, 
as  in  American  states. 

3.  The  League  was  a  real  government  in  organism  and 

functions;  had  control  of  foreign  relations. 

4.  The  Assembly  of  the  League  (Ekklesia?). 

a.  Primary  not  representative;  all  citizens  of  30 
years  in  all  states  could  attend  and  vote. 

&.  In  tl;ieory,  democratic;  in  practice,  aristocratic 
(plutocratic),  but  not  oligarchic:    why? 

c.  Votes  taken  by  cities,  not  by  heads:  this  was  the 

result  of  a  necessary  compromise. 

d.  Two  regular  meetings  a  year,  at  Aigion  in  early 

period. 

e.  Government  practically  had  the  initiative. 

5.  The  Senate  (Boule). 

a.  Composed  of  groups  of  representatives  from  the 
cities;  not  a  committee  chosen  by  the  assembly. 

6.  The  assembly  and  senate  sitting  together  formed 
one  body  (synod)  :  this  body  was  therefore  both 
primary  and  representative  (see  theory  of  Du- 
bois, 113  ff.;  and  Freeman  239-41,  643-45,  651). 

6.  Magistrates  or  ministers. 

a.  The  strategos   (general)    or  president:  elected  by 

popular  vote ;  might  be  citizen  of-  any  state. 
&.  The  ten  ministers  (damiourgoi). 

1)  Chosen,   like  president,   from  all   the  cities; 

an  Achaean  "caucus"  (Freeman,  222). 

2)  Formed  a  cabinet  council  for  president,  with 

seats  in  assembly, 
c.  The   secretary   of   state,   general   of  cavalry,   and 
under-general. 

7.  Financial    system :     federal    taxes    were    in    form    of 

requisitions  on  the  states;   compare  with  policy  of 
American  confederation. 

8.  Comparison  of  Achaean  federal  constitution  with  other 

systems. 
a.  Great  relative  importance  of  the  office  of  strate- 
gos or  president;  Markos  the  first  to  hold 
the  office  alone  (255  B.  C). 
1)   Comparison  of  Aratos  and  Perikles. 


14  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

2)  Comparison    with    American    president    and 

English  premier. 

3)  Assembly  summoned  by  the  general  in  council. 

4)  Why  the  ministers,  not  the  general,  presided 

in  the  assembly? 

5)  Joint  action  of  general  and  ministers  in  diplo- 

matic matters. 

6)  His  great  powers  in  war. 

7)  The  American  and  Achaean  presidential  in- 

terregnums compared. 
h.  General  comparison  of  the  Achaean  League  and 
the  United  States  (Freeman,  243-251;  Federalist, 
Nos.  xvi,  xviii,  xxviii,  xlv,  Ixx,  and  index. 

VI.  Constitution  of  the  Aetolian  League  Compared  with  that 
of  Achaea  (Freeman,  252-74). 

REFERENCES. 

Freeman,  Federal  Government,  chaps,  v,  vi;  Hart,  Federal  Govern- 
ment, 31-3,  and  bibliographical  foot-notes;  Woolsey,  Political  Science, 
II,  180-193;  Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece,  II,  chap.  Ixi,  374  ff.;  Dubois 
Les  Ligues  Etolienne  et  Acheenne;  Federalist,  as  cited  and  Index.  In 
general,  consult  Polybios,  Plutarch,  Strabo,  Livy,  and  the  other  sources 
as  cited  in  Freeman's  foot-notes.  Compare  Schorn,  Geschichte  Grie- 
chenlands;  Tittmann,  Staatsverfassungen  (1812);  Kortum,  Staats- 
verfassungen  (1821);  Droysen,  Hellenismus;  Hermann,  Lehrluch,  I, 
sees.  11-14;  Gilbert,  Handhucn,  I,  389-417,  II,  14,  21-31,  33,  47-57, 
104-123,  184,  404-419;  Busolt,  in  Miiller's  Handluch,  IV,  4  (1887),  sees. 
54-71,  233-48;    Schomann,  Antiquities,  294-539. 


Section    VI.     Historical    Development    of    the    Achaean 
League,  281-146  B.  C.    (Freeman,  chaps,  vii-ix,  275-556). 

I.  From  the  Foundation  of  the  League  to  the  Deliverance  of 
Corinth,  281-243  B.  C. 

1.  General  condition  of  Greece. 

a.  Invasion  of  the  Gauls. 

6.  War  between  Pjrrhos  of  Epeiros  and  Antigonos 
Gonatas  of  Macedonia. 

c.  State  of  Sparta;  of  Athens. 

d.  Macedonia  and  her  "tyrants"  in  the  Greek  cities. 

2.  Markos  and  the  sole  generalship,  255  B.  C. 

3.  Aratos  and  the  annexation  of  Sikjon,  251  B.  C.  (Free- 

man, 278-287). 


GREECE    AND    WESTERN    EUROPE.  15 

4,  Character  of  Aratos  (see  Plutarch). 

a.  His  political  ideas :  merits  and  faults  of  character. 
&.  Statesmanship. 

c.  Generalship. 

d.  Relations  with  Antigonos,  Ptolemy  Philadelphos, 

and  Kleomenes. 

5.  Significant  events, 

c.  Invasion  of  Attica  by  the  League,  243  B.  C. 
h.  Accession     of     Corinth,     Megara,     Troizen,     and 
Epidauros,  243  B.  C. 

c.  Invasion  of  Attica  by  the  League,  243  B.  C. 

d.  Vain  attempt  on  Argos;  morality  of  Greek  tyran- 

nicide. 

e.  Illustrations  of  the  character  of  Greek  federalism 

in  this  period. 

II.  From  the  Deliverance  of  Corinth  to  the  Annexation  of 
Argos,  243-228  B.  C.   (Freeman,  305-335). 

1.  Agis  of  Sparta,  Aratos,  and  the  Aetolian  invasion  of 

Peloponnesos,  241  B.  C. 

2.  Unsuccessful  attempts  on  Athens,  Argos,  and  Peiraieus. 

3.  Kleonai  joins  the  League. 

4.  Kynaitha  and  other  Arkadian  towns  join  the  League. 

5.  Megalopolis  (the  city  of  Lydiadas,  Lykortas,  Polybios, 

and  Philopoimen)  joins  the  League,  234  B.  C. 

6.  Character  of  Lydiadas;  his  rivalry  with  Aratos. 

7.  Accession  of  Argos  to  the  league,  228  B.  C. :  conduct  of 

Lydiadas  and  Aratos  compared.     Commanding  posi- 
tion of  the  League. 

III.  Aratos  and  Kleomenes,  to  the  Beginning  of  Negotiations 
with  Macedonia,  227-224  B.  C.  (Freeman,  335-361). 

1.  Condition  of  Sparta;  reforms  of  Agis,  241  B.  C. ;  revolu- 
tion of  Kleomenes,  226-225  B.  C. ;  relations  with  the 
League;  causes  of  the  war  with  the  League. 
.  2.  Kleomenes  gains  the  Aetolian  towns  in  Arkadia,  228 
B.  C. 

3.  Generalship  of  Aristomachos,  228  B.  C. :  why  Lydiadas 

was  not  chosen? 

4.  Kleomenes    defeats    Aratos    at    Mount    Lykaion,    and 

Aratos  surprises  Mantineia,  226-225  B.  C. :  results? 
(Plutarch,  Kleomenes ,  5;  idem,  Aratos,  36). 


16  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

5.  Defeat  of  Achaeans  at  Ladokeia,  226  B.  C. :  death  of 

Lydiadas;  cowardice  of  Aratos;  he  is  censured. 

6.  Mantineia  revolts  to  Kleomenes;  Kleomenes's  victory 

at  Hekatombaion,  224  B.  C. 

7.  Relative  position  of  Kleomenes  and  Aratos;  the  latter 

appeals   to    Macedonia    (compare   Plutarch^    Aratos. 
S8,  41,  and  Polybios,  II,  47,  passim). 

IV.  Alliance  of  Aratos  and  Antigonos  Doson,  223-221  B.  C. 

1.  The  negotiations  with  Antigonos. 

2.  Relations  of  the  two  allies  with  Kleomenes;  popularity 

of  the  latter;  his  schemes. 

3.  Secession  of  some  towns  of  the  League;  lesson  as  to 

federal  government. 

4.  Antigonos  invited  by  the  League;  and  Akrokorinthos 

surrendered    to    him;    judgment   on    the   conduct   of 
Aratos. 

5.  Battle  of  Sellasia;  defeat  and  exile  of  Kleomenes;  death 

of  Antigonos,  221  B.  C. ;  his  character. 

V.  The  League  from  the  Battle  of  Sellasia  to  the  Peace  of 
Epeiros,  221-205  B.  C.  (Freeman,  389-467). 

1.  Rise  of  Philopoimen. 

2.  The  Social  war,  221-217  B.  C. 

3.  Revolution  at  Sparta,  220-219  B.  C. 

4.  Congress  of  Korinth,  220  B.  C. ;  Congress  of  Naupaktos, 

217  B.  C. 

5.  Death  of  Aratos,  213  B.  C. 

6.  First  war  of  Rome  with  Macedonia. 

7.  Character  and  statesmanship  of  Philopoimen. 

8.  Peace  of  Epeiros,  205  B.  C. 

VI.  Federal  Greece  from  the  Peace  of  Epeiros  to  the  Dissolu- 
tion of  the  Achaean  League,  205-146  B.  C.  (Freeman,  471- 
556). 

1.  The   second   Macedonian   war   and   the   settlement   of 

Greece  under  Flamininus,  205-194  B.  C. 
a.  Character  of  Philip  of  Macedonia. 
h.  Alliance  of  the  leagues  with  Rome. 

2.  Work  of  Philopoimen ;  his  death,  183  B.  C. 

3.  The  Achaean  League  extended  over  all  Peloponnesos, 

191   B.    C. ;    its   condition   and   constitution   in   this 
period. 

4.  Main  events. 


GREECE   AND    WESTERN    EUROPE.  17 

REFERENCES. 

The  chief  sources  are  Plutarch  and  Polybios;  the  leading  English 
writers  are  Thirlwall  and  Freeman.  See  also  the  book  of  Dubois 
above  cited. 

Section  VII.     Federal  Institutions  in  Italy  and  Western 

Europe. 

A.  Ancient  Italy. 

I.  Conditions  Favoring  Federation;  Character  of  the  Sources. 

II.  League  of  Etruria  (Freeman,  562-565;  Hart,  34;  Mtiller, 
Etrusker,  I,  131,  136,  350  ff. ;  Mommsen,  History,  Index; 
Livy;  Dionysios). 

1.  Composed  of  "twelve"  cities. 

a.  Significance  of  "twelve"  as  a  political  number. 
h.  Had  the  individual  states  subject  towns? 

2.  Religious    and    federal    assemblies    at    the   temple   of 

Voltumna:  was  the  political  league  preceded  by  an 
amphiktyony?  (Livy,  IV,  23,  25,  VI,  2). 

3.  No  exact  knowledge  as  to  the  constitution  of  the  league. 

a.  Kings  are  mentioned;  the  aristocracy  of  historical 
times  probably  preceded  by  royalty. 

&.  Looseness  of  the  federation  shown  by  the  states 
retaining  war  powers;  but  war  and  peace  might 
be  declared  by  the  federal  government. 

III.  League  of  Samnium. 

1.  Character  of  the  Samnites ;  analogy  with  Aetolians  and 

the  Swiss. 

2.  The  federal  constitution :  absence  of  detailed  informa- 

tion. 
a.  Was  there  a  federal  president  or  head?    Who  was 

the  imperator  or  emhratur?  (Livy,  IX,  1.) 
6.  Evidence  for  at  least  five  divisions  (states). 

c.  Probably  a  popular  assembly  and  a  senate  (Free- 

man, 566,  note  1). 

d.  There  was  a  Samnite  nation;  significance  of  the 

long  war  with  Rome,  340-82,  B.  C. 

IV.  The  League  of  Latium. 

1.  Character  of  the  people  and   the  towns;   traditional 

history  of  the  founding  of  the  League  (Dionysios,  IV, 
25,  26;  Freeman,  568). 

2.  Composed  of  "thirty"  cities. 


18  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

3,  Constitution. 

a.  Dictator:   federal   head,  at  least  in  time  of  war 

(Dionjsios,  V,  74). 
&.  Political   and  religious  meetings,   survival   of  the 

Feriae  Latinae. 

4.  Relations  with  Rome:  Rome  a  Latin  town,  but  not  a 

mere  capital  of  Latium ;  significance  of  the  Latin  pro- 
posal for  union,  337  B.  C.  (Livy,  VIII,  3-5,  8).  The 
League  dissolved  by  Rome,  334  B.  C. 

V.  Federal  Elements  in  the  Roman  Commonwealth  (Freeman, 
Federal  Government,  572-592;  idem,  Comparative  Politics; 
Fiske,  American  Political  Ideas,  77  ft'.;  Hart,  35-6). 

1.  Roman  expansion  by  ^'incorporation" ;   significance  of 

the  gwasi- federal  elements;  analogy  with  Athen- 
ian method  of  incorporation. 

a.  Stages  in  the  process;  the  three  classes:  Romans, 
Latins,  Allies  (Italians  under  Roman  sway)  ;  the 
franchise  in  the  provinces;  the  strife  between 
patrician  and  plebeian. 

&.  The  process  of  expansion  w^as  not  federalism:  the 
Roman  "alternative"    (Freeman,  575-76). 

2.  The  Social  War,  90-89  B.  C. :  Italy's  first  great  oppor- 

tunity for  union  (Freeman,  583  ft.,  600;  Beesly, 

The  Gracchi), 
a.  Causes    of   the   struggle;    the    demand    for    equal 

citizenship  or  for  independence. 
6.  Who  were  the  allies;  position  of  Etruscans  and 

Umbrians. 

c.  The  constitution  of  the  federation. 

1)  Corfinium,  the  capital;  renamed  Italicum. 

2)  Officers. 

3)  Federal  senate  of  500. 

d.  Success  of  the  allies:  the  senate  tenders  the  fran- 

chise; conditions;  Samnium  and  Lucania  refuse; 
the  other  allies  accept  the  offer. 

3.  The  Civil  war,  88-82  B.  C. 

a.  Causes. 

ft.  Rivalry  of  Marius  and  Sulla. 

G.  Battle    of    the    Colline    Gate:    Sulla    victorious: 

Samnium  ravaged. 
d.  Italy  enfranchised. 


GREECE   AND    WESTERN    EUROPE.  19 

B.     Western  Europe. 

I.  The  Lombard  Lea^e,  1164-1183;  Renewed,  1228,  1239. 

1.  Condition  of  Italy  in  the  12th  century. 

a.  Practically  composed  of  many  states:  city-states, 

principalities,  papal  domains. 
&.  The  empire. 

1)  The    German    kingdom    and    the    election    at 

Frankfort. 

2)  The  Italian  kingdom  and  the  coronation  at 

Monza  or  Milan. 

3)  The  Holy  Roman  empire  and  the  coronation 

at  Rome. 

2.  Frederic  I,  Barbarossa  (1152-90). 

a.  Character. 

6.  Points  of  dispute  between  him  and  the  northern 

cities  of  Italy. 
c.  Frederick's  first  war  with  the  cities,  1154-62 :  Milan 

destroyed,   1162. 

3.  The  League  formed,  1164:    Italy's  second  opportunity 

for  union. 

a.  The  League  supported  by  the  eastern  emperor, 
Manuel  Komnenos,  William,  King  of  Sicily,  and 
Pope  Alexander  III.     Position  of  Venice? 

I.  Victory  of  the  League,  at  Legnano,  1176. 

c.  Peace  of  Constans,  1183. 

4.  Character  of  the  League. 

a.  A  mere  confederation  for  a  special  purpose. 

6.  The  Rectores  Societatis  Lomhardiae. 

c.  Why  true  federalism  did  not  develop  in  Italy? 

5.  The  renewed  League,   1228,   1239,   compared  with  the 

original. 

II.  The  United  Netherlands,  1576-1746. 

1.  Origin. 

2.  Constitution. 

a.  The  states  general :  real  federal  powers. 

6.  The  Stadtholderate. 

c.  Weakness  of  the  Dutch  confederation  (Hart,  48). 

III.  The  Holy  Roman  Empire,  1526-1806. 

1.  A  very  loose  confederation:  a  Staatenstaat. 

2.  Complex  organization  of  courts  and  diet  (Reichstag)  ; 


20  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

the  itio  in  partes^  or   veto  power  of  religious  con- 
fessions. 

IV.  Rhenish  Confederation,  1254-1350. 

1.  Colloquia  or  deliberative  assembly. 

2.  Commission  or  court  of  arbitration. 

V.  The  Hansa,  1367-1669. 

1.  Commercial  objects. 

2.  Political  importance:    war  powers  and  diplomacy. 

3.  Organization  or  constitution. 

a.  Bundestag. 
6.  Courts. 
For  bibliographies,  see  Hart,  34-48,  notes. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ORIGIN   AND    CHARACTER   OF   THE   FEDERAL    CONSTITUTION 
OF   THE  UNITED    STATES. 


Section  VIII.     The   "United  Colonies  of   New   England/' 

1643-1684. 

I.  General  Condition  of  the  Colonies  in  1643  ( Frothingham, 
33-38;  Fiske,  Beginnings  of  N.  E.,  140  ff.;  Doyle,  Puritan 
Colonies,  1,  220  ff.). 

1.  Relation  to  the  crown  and  parliament. 

a.  Direct    superintendence    by    the    king   and    privy 

council  until  1634. 
6.  Control  vested  by  king  in  the  lords  commissioners 

of  foreign  plantations,  1634. 

c.  Control  vested  by  Long  parliament  in  the  lords  of 

trade  and  plantations,  April,  1643:  a  president 
and  17  councillors  (Hazard,  Hist,  Coll.,  I,  533)  ; 
a  new  board  created,  1655. 

d.  Control  vested  by  king  in  a  council  committee  for 

foreign  plantations,  July  4,  1660  (instructions 
in  N.  Y.  Docs.  rel.  to  Col.  Hist.  Ill,  30  f.). 

e.  Vested  by  king  in  lords  of  trade  and  plantations, 

1675. 

f.  Vested  in  the  lords  commissioners   of  trade   and 

plantations,  1696 :  president  and  eight  members, 
called  the  ''Board  of  Trade." 

2.  Population  of  all  the  colonies;   of  the  New  England 

colonies. 

3.  Political    condition :    ecclesiastical     troubles ;     Indian 

policy. 

II.  Motives  for  the  Formation  of  the  Confederation  (see  pre- 
amble) . 

1.  Settlement  of  boundary  disputes. 

2.  Settlement  of  cases  of  intercolonial  jurisdiction. 

(21) 


^15  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

3.  Need  of  united  action  regarding  Indians,  French,  and 

Dutch. 

4.  Other  motives. 

III.  Attempts  at  Union,  1637-1643. 

1.  Suggested  by   Connecticut,   1637    (Winthrop,   Hist,   of 

N.  E.,  I,  237)  ;  articles  proposed  by  Massachusetts 
discussed,  16S8  {ibid.,  284)  ;  urged  by  Haynes  and 
Hooker,  1639  {ihid.,  299). 

2.  Proposed  by  magistrates  of  Rhode  Island,  New  Haven, 

and  Connecticut,  1640  (Winthrop,  II,  21;  Mass.  Col. 
Rec,  I,  305). 

3.  Again  proposed,  1642  (Winthrop,  II,  85). 

4.  May  19,  1643,  the  articles  were  agreed  upon  in  a  con- 

vention of  13  delegates  from  Plymouth,  Massa- 
chusetts, New  Haven,  and  Connecticut  (Bradford, 
416;  Winthrop,  II,  99). 

IV.  Analysis  of  the  Articles :    Example  of  a  Written  and  En- 
acted Constitution   ("Organic"  Law). 

1.  Preamble  giving  name  and  declaring  purpose  of  the 

league. 

2.  The  "United  Colonies"  declared  a  "league  of  friend- 

ship and  amytie." 

3.  Local  independence  secured. 

4.  Quotas  of  men  and  taxes,  how  determined;  gains  from 

wars,  how  distributed. 

5.  Forces  how  raised  to  meet  sudden  invasion;  relation  of 

burdens  to  vote  in  the  council  of  federal  commis- 
sioners {cf.  sec.  VI). 

6.  Commissioners:  number;  powers;  quorum;  Avhen  mat- 

ters to  be  referred  to  colonies;  time,  place,  and  num- 
ber of  meetings;  qualifications  (cf.  sec.  X). 

7.  President  of  commissioners:  powers. 

8.  Powers   in   intercolonial   affairs:   extradition   of   crim- 

inals; fugitive  slave  clause;  change  of  jurisdiction; 
securing  speedy  justice. 

9.  Federal  war-powers. 

10.  When  four  commissioners  may  act. 

11.  Breach  of  articles:  what  means  of  enforcement? 

12.  Acceptance  of  the  constitution:  case  of  Plymouth? 


UNITED    STATES.  23 

V.  Chief  Defects  of  the  Constitution. 

1.  Franchise. 

2.  Some  colonies  excluded. 

3.  No  action  on  the  individual. 

VI.  History  of  the  Confederation. 

1.  Criticism    of   the   policy    of    Massachusetts:    cases    of 

Miantonomo  and  Gorton,  1643:  action  of  the  com- 
missioners; nullification,  1650,  1653  (Doyle,  I,  286-88, 
299-301). 

2.  Services  of  the  confederation. 

3.  The  question  of  sovereignty. 

a.  An  example  of  a  confederacy  of  "dependencies.'^ 
&.  Complaints  by  Gorton  and  others  of  usurpation  of 
sovereignty. 

1)  Winslow's  defense,  1646-7. 

2)  Letter  of  the  lord  commissioners  {Mass.  Col, 

i^ec,  II,  141). 

3)  Defense  by  Massachusetts,  1651  (Hutchinson, 

History,  I,  516). 

c.  John    Eliot's    "Christian    Commonwealth"    {Mass. 

Hist.  Coll.,  first  series.  III,  9). 

d.  Complaints    by    Breeden,    Maverick,    and    others, 

1661  {Coll.  Maim  Hist.  Soc,  I,  301;  Hutchinson, 
Collections,  339;  Chalmers,  Annals,  178;  Froth- 
ingham,  51-2). 

e.  Special  royal  commission,  1664-5  {Mass.  Col.  Rec.^ 
}■  IV,  Pt.  II,  157  ff.;  Frothingham,  53  ff.; 
■                               Chalmers,  Annals,  387-88). 

1)  Proceedings  in  Massachusetts:  action  of  the 

other  colonies. 

2)  Defense  of  the  confederation  by  the  committee 

of  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts 
{Mass.  Col.  Rec,  IV,  Part  II,  231;  Froth- 
ingham, 61). 

4.  Decline  of  the  confederacy. 

a.  Effect  of  the  incorporation  of  New  Haven  and 
Connecticut  by  the  charter  of  1662  {Plym.  Col. 
Rec,  X,  318  ff.). 

1).  New  constitution  adopted,  1670  {Plym.  Col.  Rec., 
X,  340-4). 

c.  Number  of  meetings  (Frothingham,  63,  note). 


24  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

VII.  Significance  for  Federal  Institutions  of  the  Gradual  In- 
corporation of  the  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode 
Island  Towns,  respectively,  in  Colonial  Unions? 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Text  of  the  articles:  Preston,  Documents,  85-95;  Macdonald, 
iSelect  Charters,  94-101;  New  Haven  Col.  Records,  I,  98-104;  Plym.  Col. 
Records,  IX,  3-8;  American  Hist.  Leaflets,  No.  7. 

2.  Records  of  the  Commissioners:  Plymouth  Colonial  Records, 
IX,  X;  Hazard,  Historical  Collections,  II. 

3.  History  and  Discussion:  Important  passages  in  Winthrop,  Brad- 
ford, Hutchinson,  Chalmers  (Annals),  and  Hubbard,  History  of  Mass. 
(in  2  Mass.  Hist.  Coll.,  VI),  chap.  53.  See  also  Frothingham,  Tiise  of 
Republic,  33-71;  Doyle,  Puritan  Colonies,  I,  220  ff.,  277-90;  Fiske,  Be- 
ginnings of  New  England,  140  fif.,  158  ff.;  Fisher,  Colonial  Era,  133  ff.; 
Thwaites,  Colonies,  154  ff.;  Lodge,  Short  History,  ,351-352,  375,  377; 
Bancroft,  I,  289-310;  Tyler,  England  in  America,  297  ff.;  Bryant  and 
Gay,  II,  49-50,  373-87;  Smith,  in  Memorial  Hist,  of  Boston,  I,  chap,  vii; 
C.  F.  Adams,  Three  Episodes;  Brooks  Adams,  Emancipation  of  Mass.; 
J.  Q.  Adams,  in  3  Mass.  Hist.  Coll.,  IX,  187. 

See  bibliographies,  in  Hart  and  Channing,  Guide,  276;  Winsor, 
Mem.  Hist.  Boston,  I,  299;  idem,  Narrative  and  Crit.  Hist.,  Ill,  354; 
Andrews,  Colonial  Self-Oovernment,  chap,  i,  ii  (how  controlled  by 
central  authority) ;  N.  Y.  Docs.,  Ill,  Introduction,  on  Boards  of  Trade. 


Section  IX.     Franklin^s  Plan  of  Colonial  Union  and  the 
Albany  Convention,  1754. 

I.  Congresses,  Plans  of  Union,  and  Opinions  Disclosing  a 
Nascent  Sentiment  of  Union,  1684-1754  (Frothingham, 
chaps,  iii,  iv,  72-131;  Howard,  Preliminaries  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, 10-15,  and  the  authorities  there  cited.  Gf.  Greene, 
Provincial  America,  57,  and  chap,  xi;  Thwaites,  France  in 
America,  chap.  x). 

1.  Effect  of  the  general  government  of  Andros;   of  the 

Leisler  incident  in  New  York. 

2.  July,  1684 :    convention  of  officials  of  Virginia,  Mary- 

land, Massachusetts,  and  New  York,  to  confer  with 
chiefs  of  the  Five  Nations. 

3.  April  and  May,  1690,  congress  of  delegates  from  Massa- 

chusetts, Connecticut,  Plymouth,  and  New  Y^ork  in 
New  York  City  to  arrange  for  common  defense. 

4.  Other  assemblies    (Frothingham,   118-119,   note). 

5.  Plans  of  union  suggested  by  Penn   (1698),  Davenant 

(1698),    Livingston    (1701),    Coxe    (1722),    Kennedy 
(1752),  and  others. 


UNITED    STATES.  25 

II.  The  Albany  Convention,  June  19,  1754  (bibliography  of 
convention  in  Winsor,  Y,  611-14;  credentials  of  delegates 
in  Pa.  Archives  J  II,  137). 

1.  The  call  by  the  lords  of  trade,  September  18,  1754:  to 

governors  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Massa- 
chusetts, New  Hampshire,  Virginia,  Maryland,  and 
Pennsylvania  {N.  Y.  Docs.,  VI,  802)  ;  their  letter  to 
Governor  Delancy  of  New  York  {ibid.,  800). 

2.  Representation  (see  map  in  Howard,  154). 

a.  Chosen  by  the  legislature  in  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, and  Rhode  Island. 

6.  Appointed  by  governor,  in  king's  name,  in  New 
Hampshire,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mary- 
land. 

c.  25  delegates  in  all. 

3.  Results  of  negotiations  with  Indians   (see  records  of 

proceedings  in  ^ew  York  Docs.,  VI,  853  ff.). 

III.  Franklin's  Plan  of  Union  (text,  in  Preston,  170-187,  with 
Franklin's  comments;  Macdonald,  Select  Charters,  253-57; 
Isfew  York  Docs.,  VI,  889-91;  Franklin,  Works  (Sparks), 
III,  36-55  (with  his  comments)  ;  O'Callaghan,  Doc.  Hist.  N. 
Y.,  II,  545). 

1.  The  executive:  president  general,  appointed  and  paid 

by  the  crown. 
a.  Absolute  veto. 
h.  Other  powers. 

2.  Legislature:  grand  council. 

a.  Members    chosen    every    three   years    by    colonial 

houses  of  representatives. 
h.  Each  colony  to  have  1  to  7  delegates,  apportioned 

according  to  its  share  of  the  federal  taxes. 

c.  Meetings:   once  a  year;   privileges  and  wages  of 

members. 

d.  Quorum;  speaker:  when  to  have  powers  of  presi- 

dent? 

e.  Functions  (with  president  in  some  cases). 

1)  Make  laws;  subject  to  royal  veto  in  council 

in  three  years. 

2)  With  president,  to  control  all  Indian  affairs. 


26  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

3)  Establish,    and    make    laws    for,    new   settle- 

ments on  purchased  Indian  lands;  and  regu- 
late Indian  trade. 

4)  War  powers:  build  forts,  maintain  ships  and 

soldiers,  and  vote  taxes  therefor. 

o)  Appoint  general  treasurer  and  special  treas- 
urers in  the  colonies. 

G)  Share  in  appointment  of  civil  and  military 
oflScers. 

3.  Military  constitution :  summary  of  provisions. 

a.  Military  commissions. 

&.  Defense  by  each  colony  in  cases  of  emergency, 
c.  Military  establishments  of  particular  colonies  to 
be  allowed. 

4.  Why  the  plan  was  rejected?     Significance  of  the  gen- 

eral discussion  of  it  in  the  colonies? 

REFERENCES. 

Proceedings  of  the  Albany  Convention,  in  New  York  Docs.,  VI,  853- 
891;  and  (in  part)  in  3  Mass.  Hist.  Coll.,  V,  5-74.  Several  plans  of 
union  in  Am.  Hist.  Leaflets,  No.  14, 

In  general,  besides  the  works  cited,  see  Frothingham,  131-150; 
Howard,  13-14;  Bancroft,  IV,  387;  Hildreth,  II,  443;  Bryant  and  Gay, 
III,  261;  Greene,  Historical  View,  69;  Chalmers,  Revolt,  II,  271; 
Thwaites,  France  in  America,  170-172. 

Section   X.     Progress  op   Federal   Sentiment   During  the 
Preliminary  Revolution^,  1763-1775. 

I.  The  Stamp  Act  Congress  and  Its  Lesson. 

1.  Origin. 

2.  Number  of  colonies  represented  and  number  of  dele- 

gates (see  map  in  Howard,  155). 

3.  Colonial  delegates,  how  chosen. 

4.  Proceedings  and  state  papers. 

5.  Ratification;   value  of  the  discussions  preceding  and 

following  the  congress. 
For    bibliography,    consult    Howard,    120-157,    343.      See 
Frothingham's  account. 

II.  The  First  Continental  Congress,  1774  (see  discussion  and 
bibliography,  in  Howard,  280-295,  344-345). 

1.  Origin ;  why  it  was  the  completion  of  the  party-organ- 
ization developed  in  the  two  classes  of  committees  of 
correspondence? 


UNITED    STATES.  27 

2.  Number  of  colonies  represented,  and  number  of  dele- 

gates (see  map  in  Howard,  282). 

3.  Colonial  delegates,  how  chosen. 

4.  Proceedings  and  state-papers;  the  constitution  of  the 

''Association." 

5.  Analysis  of  Galloway's  Plan  of  Union  (text,  in  Force, 

Arderican  Archives^  4th  series,  1). 

[II.  The  Second  Continental  Congress,  1775  et  seq. 

1.  Representatives;    number    and    choice     (see    map    in 

Howard,  282). 

2.  Gradual  assumption  of  "sovereign"  powers. 

3.  War  powers:  creation  of  a  federal  army  and  choice  of 

commander-in-chief. 
See  bibliography  in  Howard,  345.    Cf.  Small,  in  /.  H.  U. 
Studies,  VIII,  Nos.  1,  2;  and  the  Journah  of  Con- 
gress, I. 

Section   XI.     Character  of  the   Confederation,   1781-1789. 

I.  The  Revolutionary  Government  by  the  Continental  Con- 
gress (Fiske,  90:  Greene,  chap,  iii;  Frothingham,  chap,  ix; 
Hildreth,  III,  44  ff.). 

1.  By  what  authority  it  acted?     The  question  of  sover- 

eignty. 

2.  Character  of  the  "Association"  of  October  20,  1774? 

In  effect  it  was  the  "Commencement  of  the  American 
Union"  (Hildreth,  III,  46.  See  the  document  in 
Preston,  199-205;  Macdonald,  362). 

3.  What  congress  accomplished  and  what  it  failed  to  do. 

II.  Franklin's  Plan  of  Union,  July  21,  1775  (compare  with 
his  plan  of  1754). 

1.  States  rights :  each  colony  to  make  and  amend  its  own 

laws. 

2.  General    government   the   sole   authority    in    war   and 

peace,  alliances,  commerce,  currency,  posts,  army, 
navy,  Indian  affairs,  and  interstate  disputes. 

3.  Taxes  collected  by  colonies  in  proportion  to  numbers. 

4.  Congress:  one  body  composed  of  members  chosen  an- 

nually and  apportioned  triennially  according  to 
numbers. 


28  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

5.  Executive  to  consist  of  a  congressional  committee  of 

twelve,  one-third  renewed  each  year. 

6.  Amendments   to   be   approved   by   a  majority   of   the 

colonial  assemblies. 

7.  Measures  decided  by  majority  vote;  one-half,  a  quorum. 

III.  Analysis  of  the  Thirteen  Articles  of  Confederation   (the 
so-called  Dickinson  Plan). 

1.  Origin :  a  committee  of  one  from  each  state  to  mature  a 

plan  of  union,  appointed  June  11,  1776.  Its  report 
was  submitted  July  12,  1776,  and  approved  by  con- 
gress, November  15,  1777.  By  July  9,  1778,  the 
articles  were  ratified  by  ten  states,  and  by  Mary- 
land, the  last,  March  1,  1781.  Through  her  delay 
Maryland  secured  our  first  national  domain  (see 
Adams,  in  J.  H.  U.  Studies,  III,  7-54). 

2.  Articles   1-3;   the   league  of  friendship;   style   of   the 

union;  sovereignty. 

3.  Article  4 :  free  inhabitants  of  all  states  to  have  rights 

of  free  citizens  in  each  state;  extradition;  faith  and 
credit  in  judicial  records  and  proceedings,  and  acts 
of  magistrates,  among  states. 

4.  Article  5 :    representation  in  congress :   each  state  2  to 

7  delegates,  paid  by  state ;  each  state  one  vote ;  parlia- 
mentary privileges. 

5.  Article  6 :  prohibitions  on  the  states. 

6.  Article  7:  appointment  of  regimental  officers  by  the 

state. 

7.  Article  8:  requisitions  on  states  instead  of  national 

taxes. 

8.  Articles  9,  10 :  powers  of  congress. 

a.  General  powers. 

J).  Measures  requiring  nine  states. 

c.  Settlement  of  interstate  disputes. 

d.  Coinage,  weights  and  measures,  posts,  etc. 

e.  Duties  of  the  committee  of  states. 

9.  Articles    10-13:    admission    of    Canada    and    of    other 

colonies;  bills  of  credit;  amendments  by  vote  of  all 
states. 


UNITED    STATES.  29 

IV.  Preliminary  View  of  the  Defects  of  the  Confederation. 

1.  The  principal  sources  of  weakness  (Fiske,  99;  Schouler, 

I^  16;  compare  McLaughlin,  chaps,  iv,  v,  xi). 

a.  The  requirement  of  a  vote  of  nine  states  for  all 
important  measures;  and  unanimous  consent  of 
all  states  for  an  amendment. 

6.  State  control  of  commerce;  helplessness  of  United 
States  in  dealing  with  foreign  powers. 

c.  Lack  of  coercive  power;  no  action  of  the  national 
government  on  individual;  congress  might  de- 
mand troops  and  money,  but  could  not  enforce 
the  requisition. 

2.  Evidences  of  weakness  (Fiske,  chap.  iii). 

a.  Madison's  proposed  amendment  giving  the  United 
States  power  to  use  military  force  to  compel  a 
"delinquent  state  to  fulfill  its  federal  engage- 
ments"; a  constitutional  convention  proposed  by 
William  Barton,  May,  1781  (Bancroft,  Const.,  I, 
24,  note  3). 

J).  Military  weakness  and  the  cause. 

c.  Financial    weakness;    interest    on    foreign    debt; 

dread  of  the  army ;  the  five  per  cent  duty ;  Colonel 
Nicola  wishes  Washington  made  king;  the  "New- 
burg  address,"  March  11,  1783;  expulsion  of  con- 
gress from  Philadelphia,  June  21,  1783. 

d.  The  order  of  the  Cincinnati;  cause  of  the  violent 

opposition  to  it? 

e.  Failure  to  carry  out  the  treaty  of  1783;  persecu- 

tion of  the  Tories;  the  New  York  Trespass  Act, 
1784;  Hamilton  and  the  case  of  Rutgers  v.  Wad- 
dington;  the  Phocion  (Hamilton)  and  Mentor 
(Ledyard)  letters;  England  retains  the  western 
posts. 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Text  of  Articles  of  Confederation:  Preston,  21^;  Poore,  Charters y 
I,  7  ff.;  Macdonald,  Select  Documents,  6-15;  Townsend,  Civil  Govern- 
ment, 46-55;  Elliot,  Debates,  I,  79-85;  Johnston,  Politics,  280-294; 
Stearns,  Constitutional  History,  313  ff.;  Macy,  Our  Government,  251 
ff.;  Cooper,  American  Politics,  pt.  Ill,  5  ff. 

2.  Franklin's  Plan:  Bancroft,  IV,  243-44;  Prothingham,  481,  note; 
Morse,  Franklin,  206;  Draper,  Civil  War,  I,  258;  Pitkin,  II,  ch.  xi. 

3.  Character  of  the  Confederation:  Fiske,  Critical  Period,  ch.  iii; 
Frothingham,   481,   517,   569-71,    573-84;    Curtis,   I,   80,   86   ff.;    PrestoH, 


30  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

218-19;  Schouler,  History  of  U.  8.,  I,  13  ff.;  Hildreth,  III,  395  fl., 
453-54;  Von  Hoist,  I,  ch.  i;  Bancroft,  V,  199  ff.,  439  fC.;  Federalist, 
Index  at  "Confederation";  Elliot,  Del)ates,  I,  67  fl.,  70-78  (Jefferson's 
notes);  Piske,  Civil  Oovernment,  18-23;  Story,  Commentaries,  1,  217- 
223,  passim;  Crane  and  Moses,  Politics,  135-141;  Lalor,  I,  591-92,  574-76; 
Schouler,  Const.  Studies,  70-92;  Donaldson,  Pu1)lic  Domain,  59-60; 
Landon,  Const.  Hist.,  42-62;  Macy,  Our  Government,  35  ff.;  Morse, 
Hamilton,  I,  ch.  iv  (Confederation),  v  (Ledyard) ;  Draper,  Civil  War, 
I,  259  ff;  Pitkin,  II,  ch.  xi,  xvi;  Johnston,  U.  8.,  136.  See  especially 
the  view  of  McLaughlin,  in  his  recent  book,  The  Confederation  and  the 
Constitution;  and  read  Van  Tyne,  American  Revolution,  chaps,  ix,  xi. 


Section  XII.     Origin  op  the  Constitutional  Convention  of 

1787. 

A.     The  Weakness  of  the  Confederation,  1781-1787. 

I.  Failure  of  All  Plans  to  Strengthen  the  Confederacy. 

1.  Bj  grant  of  specific  powers. 

a.  Five  per  cent,  scheme,  1781-1783  {A.  E.  L.,  No.  28, 

p.  2). 
J).  Revenue  scheme,  1783-1786  (A.  H.  L.,  No.  28,  p.  12). 

c.  Commerce  scheme,  1784-1787  (A.  E.  L.,  No.  28,  p. 

20). 

d.  Minor  schemes. 

1)  Monroe's  report,  July  13-14,  1785   (Bancroft, 

Eist.,    VI,    142-45;  \dem,    Const.,    I,    192-6; 
A.  E.  L.,  No.  28,  p.  25). 

2)  Seven   amendments  to   the   Articles  of   Con- 

federation proposed  August,  1786  (Bancroft, 
Const.,  I,  260-62;  A.  E.  L.,  No.  28,  p.  26). 

2.  By  grant  of  coercive  powers. 

a.  Washington  urges,  1781-1786  (Fiske,  99-100;  Madi- 
son, Papers,  I,  81-84). 

Z>.  New  York  senate  recommends,  September,  1780 
(Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  12-13). 

c.  Madison  proposes  in  report  to  congress,  March  16, 

1781  (Madison,  Papers,  I,  86-90;  Bancroft,  Const., 
I,  23;  A.  E.  L.,  No.  28,  p.  3^ 

d.  The  Virginia  resolution.  May,  1784 ;  distress  on  in- 

dividuals (Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  163). 

3.  By  change  in  the  form  of  government'. 

a.  To  a  monarchy  or  dictatorship,  1781-1783  (Fiske, 
107-8;  Gay,  Madison,  77-9). 


UNITED    STATES.  31 

&.  To  a  centralized  government,  the  states  to  be  sup- 
pressed or  reduced  to  mere  provinces  (Gay,  78). 
c.  To  a  closer  federal  union,  1780-1785. 

1)  Price   convention   of   northeastern   states,   at 

Boston,  August,  1780,  declares  for  one  su- 
preme head  and  a  more  eflScient  legislature, 
recommends  the  Hartford  Convention  (Sum- 
ner, Financier,  I,  92). 

2)  November  11,  1780,  Hartford  Price  Convention 

of  northeastern  states  and  New  York 
urges  need  of  stronger  federal  government 
(Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  14-15). 

3)  Amendments  to  Articles  of  Confederation  pro- 

posed in  report  of  a  congressional  committee 
(Randolph,  Ellsworth,  Varnum),  August  22, 
1781    (Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  25-27;  A.  H.  L., 
No.  28,  p.  4). 
4.  Personal  influence. 

a.  Washington's  influence  (Curtis,  I,  265-273;  Ban- 
croft, Const.,  I,  16-19;  Lodge,  II,  16  ff.)  ;  his 
letter  to  Jefferson,  etc.  (Madison,  Papers)  ;  to 
Harrison,  1784  (Bancroft,  U.  S.,  VI,  115)  ;  to  J. 
P.  Custis  (Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  21-2)  ;  great  in- 
fluence of  his  letter  ("legacy")  of  June  8,  1783 
(Fiske,  54;  Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  100  ff.)  ;  on  the 
Virginia  resolves  of  December  24,  1779  (Ban- 
croft, Const.,  I,  19-21). 
l.  Hamilton's  influence  (Schouler,  I,  24  ff. ;  Lodge, 
Hamilton,  50-57 ;  Curtis,  I,  273-82 ;  Morse,  Hamil- 
ton, I,  155-176)  ;  letter  to  Duane,  September  30, 
1780  (Curtis,  I,  138,  note,  236-9,  note;  Bancroft, 
Const.,  I,  13)  ;  his  "Continental"  papers  (see 
Hamilton's  ed.  of  Federalist;  Bancroft,  Const., 
I,  25-6). 

c.  Madison's  influence   (Schouler,  I,  26-7;  Curtis,  I, 

282-90;  Bancroft  Const.,  1,  81-4). 

d.  Pelatiah  Webster's  influence  (Bancroft,  Hist.,  VI, 

66;  idem,  Const,  I,  86;  A.  H.  L.,  No.  28,  p.  7). 

e.  Noah   Webster's   influence,    1784-5;    a   government 

acting  on  individuals   (Curtis,  I,  236;  Bancroft, 


32  FBDEEAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

U.  S.,  VI,  136;  Con^t.,  I,  184-5;  A.  H.  L.,  No.  28, 
pp.  21-24). 
f.  Patrick  Henry's  influence  (Tyler,  Henry,  266-278). 

II.  Anarchy  and  Impending  Dissolution,  1786-7. 

1.  Collapse  of  the  national  finances. 

2.  Ruin  of  foreign  commerce. 

3.  Insurrection    (Shays's   rebellion)    and    strife   in    the 

states  (see  the  Wyoming,  Vermont,  and  Tennessee 
troubles). 

4.  Threatened  secession  of  the  West,  and  of  New  England 

(see  Mississippi  question). 

5.  Danger  of  sectional  unions. 

6.  Foreign  predictions  of  failure. 

B.    Growth  of  Popular  Sentiment  in  Favor  of  a  Cofistitutional 

Convention. 

I.  Early  Proposals  by  Individuals. 

1.  Hamilton  suggests  in  his  letter  to  Duane,  September 

30,  1780  (Curtis,  I,  138,  note,  236-9,  note;  Bancroft, 
Const.,  I,  13)  ;  and  in  congress,  1783  (Curtis,  I,  236, 
note  S;  A.  H.  L.,  No.  28,  p.  15;  Hamilton,  Works,  I, 
288-95). 

2.  Thomas  Paine  in  "Public  Good,"  December,  1780  (Ban- 

croft, Const.,  I,  13). 

3.  Greene  demands,  1780  (Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  14). 

4.  William  Bartou  urges  in  a  pamphlet  published  May, 

1781,  wrongly  ascribed  to  Pelatiah  Webster  (Ban- 
croft, Const.,  I,  24,  note  3;  cf.  Fiske,  101,  222;  Curtis, 
I,  236,  note  3 ;  Schouler,  I,  24) . 

II.  Proposals  of  State  Legislatures. 

1.  New   York   resolution,    1782,    suggested    by   Hamilton 

(Curtis,  I,  236,  note  3;  Bancroft,  Hist.,  VI,  30-31,  V, 
559;  idem,  Const.,  I,  29,  37-9;  Hildreth,  III,  477). 

2.  Massachusetts  resolution,  June- July,  1785    (Curtis,  I, 

225-8 ;  McMaster,  I,  256-9) . 

III.  The  Virginia-Maryland  Commercial  Commission,  1784-5. 
1.  Influence   of   Washington   in    formation    of   plans    for 

commercial  intercourse  between  East  and  West 
(Adams,  in  J.  H.  U.,  Studies,  III,  80-102;  Bancroft, 


UNITED   STATES.  33 

Hist.,  VI,  113-114,  125  fif.;  Lodge,  Washington,  II, 
14-17). 

2.  Meeting  of  the  commissioners  at  Mount  Vernon,  March, 

1785.  Washington's  probable  influence  (Curtis,  I, 
230,  note  2;  Marshall,  Washington,  V,  90;  Adams, 
in  J.  H.  U.,  Studies,  III,  41)  ;  the  commission  en- 
larges its  plan;  its  report  (Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  250; 
Curtis,  I,  231;  McMaster,  I,  277-8). 

3.  Maryland   accepts  the  suggestion   of  the  commission, 

November,  1785,  and  proposes  to  invite  the  coopera- 
tion of  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  (McMaster,  I, 
279). 

4.  Madison  secures  the  Virginia  resolution  of  January  21, 

1786,  inviting  all  states  to  meet  in  convention  to  con- 
sider federal  regulation  of  trade,  and  providing  for 
the  appointment  of  seven  commissioners;  the  latter 
suggests  that  the  meeting  be  held  at  Annapolis  on 
the  first  Monday  in  September,  1786  (McMaster,  I, 
279-81;  Bancroft,  Hist,  VI,  183;  Curtis,  I,  231). 

5.  New  Jersey  prepares  the  way,  October  20,  1786,  by  re- 

fusing requisitions  until  all  the  states  agree  on  im- 
posts for  the  federal  treasury ;  her  instructions  to  her 
delegates  included  commerce  and  "other  important 
matters"  (Bancroft,  Const,  I,  256-7;  idem,  Hist., 
VI,  187). 

IV.  The  Annapolis  Convention,  September  14,  1786  (Bancroft, 
Const,  I,  267  ff.). 

1.  Five  states  only  represented :  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 

New  Jersey,  Virginia,  Delaware. 

2.  Hamilton  secures  a  call  for  a  federal  convention,  the 

second  Monday  in  May,  1787;  the  expressed  object 
being  to  make  improvements  in  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion, to  be  ratified  by  all  states. 

V.  The  States  Accept  the  Call. 

1.  Virginia,  under  guidance  of  Madison,  takes  the  lead  in 

approving  the  call,  November,  1786;  the  struggle  in 
New  York  and  other  states  (Bancroft,  Hist.,  VI,  97- 
203;  idem.  Const.,  I,  271-8). 

2.  Congress  sanctions  the  proposed  convention,  February 

21,  1787. 
3 


34  FBDEEAL   INSTITUTIONS. 


REFERENCES. 


1.  Failure  of  the  Confederation  and  Impending  Anarchy:  Schouler,  I, 
19-34;  Von  Hoist,  I,  35-48;  McMaster,  I,  356  ff.,  391  ff.;  Lalor,  Cyclo- 
paedia, III,  475-6;  Gay,  Madison,  53-63;  Story,  Commentaries,  I,  sees. 
269-71;  Curtis,  I,  221  ff.;  Draper,  Civil  War,  I,  266-77;  Woolsey,  Politi- 
cal Science,  II,  245-48;  Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  chaps,  vi,  vii;  idem, 
Hist.,  VI,  chaps,  vi,  vii,  viii;  Lodge,  Hamilton;  especially  McLaughlin, 
chaps,  ix,  X,  xi. 

2.  Origin  of  the  Federal  Constitution:  The  Virginia-Maryland  Com- 
mission, the  Annapolis  Commercial  Convention,  and  the  call  for  a 
federal  convention:  Bancroft,  Const.,  I,  169-74,  176-77,  249-57,  267-78; 
idem.  Hist.,  VI,  129,  184-85,  195-203;  Curtis,  I,  277  ff.,  389-400;  Fiske, 
Crit.  Period,  212,  222;  Schouler,  I,  29-35;  Frothingham,  Rise 
of  RepuUic,  585-89;  Hildreth,  III,  477-78;  Story,  Commentaries, 
I,  sees.  2.12-1^;  Gay,  Madison,  47-87;  Lodge,  Hamilton,  50-57; 
Elliot,  Debates,  I;  Roberts,  New  York,  II,  444-8;  Morse,  Hamilton,  I, 
158-76;  Lodge,  Washington,  II,  1-29;  Landon,  56-66;  Hart,  115-28; 
Smith  (Goldwin),  U.  8,,  119-29;  McLaughlin,  chaps,  xii,  xiii. 


Section  XIII.     The  Federal  Convention:    Principal  Plans 
AND  Compromises." 

I.  Theory  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  (Lalor,  Cyclo- 
paedia, I,  626-27;  Jameson,  Constitutional  Convention,  1-13, 
99  if. J. 

1.  The  revolutionary  convention. 

a.  English  examples:  the  convention-parliaments  of 
1399,  1688. 

6.  French  examples:    the  convention  of  1793-95,  etc. 

G.  American  examples:  Massachusetts  convention, 
1689;  the  state  conventions  and  provincial  con- 
gresses, 1775-77;  the  state  secession  conventions, 
1861. 

2.  The  constitutional  convention. 

a.  An  American  institution,  suggested  by  the  revolu- 
tionary convention. 
6.  Limitation  of  its  sphere  or  power : 

1)  French  theory. 

2)  American  theory. 

c.  Its    function:    to    enact    organic    as    opposed    to 

statutory  law;  to  formulate  a  "written  constitu- 
tion." 

d.  Call,    election,    and    procedure    of    a    convention 

(Jameson,  99  ff.). 


UNITED    STATES^  35 

II.  Organization,  Composition,  and  General  Character  of  the 
Convention  of  1787. 

1.  The  gathering.  May  14-25. 

2.  Organization,   May   25:    Washington,   president;   Wil- 

liam Jackson,  secretary;  Nicholas  Weaver,  mes- 
senger; rules  adopted  May  28;  proceedings  to  be 
secret  (Elliot,  Debates,  I,  139-143;  Schouler,  I,  36). 

3.  Difficulties  (Fiske,  222-232;  Von  Hoist,  I,  49  ff.;  Lalor, 

I,  547;  Gay,  Madison,  89-97;  Frothingham,  585- 
586;  Hildreth,  III,  584-7;  McMaster,  I,  418-23; 
Schouler,  I,  36-8;  Hart,  121  ff.). 

a.  Popular  jealousy  of  a  convention;  timidity  of  the 
members;  Washington's  appeal  (Fiske,  231-2); 
lack  of  experience  and  difference  of  interests. 

6.  The  limitation  of  the  convention's  power  as  shown 
by  the  call  of  congress  and  the  credentials  of 
members  (Elliot,  Debates,  I,  119,  123-139)  ;  did 
the  convention  transcend  its  proper  authority  in 
preparing  a  new  constitution?  (Bryce,  I,  18, 
note) . 

c.  Character  and  ability  of  the  members;  education, 

number  of  college  men;  leaders:  Washington, 
Franklin,  Hamilton,  etc. ;  Madison,  the  "Father  of 
the  Constitution";  difference  in  individual  views 
(Fiske,  224-232;  Hildreth,  III,  484);  represen- 
tative men  not  members  (Fiske,  225). 

d.  Parties  and  antagonisms. 

1)  Federalists  and  anti-federalists   (for  the  "Ir- 

reconcilables"   and  anti-federal  leaders,   see 
Fiske,  229). 

2)  Friends  of  centralization  vs.  the  advocates  of 

state  sovereignty. 

3)  Large  states  vs.  small  states. 

4)  Commercial  or  trade  states  vs.   agricultural 

states. 

5)  North  vs.  South. 

6)  East  vs.  West. 

III.  The  Principal  Plans  of  Government  Submitted. 

1.  The  Virginia  (Madison's)  plan,  May  29;  centralization; 
action  on  individuals  (Elliot,  I,  143-5,  181-3). 


36  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

a.  Principal  features. 

1)  Two  houses:  lower  chosen  by  popular  vote; 

upper  by  the  lower  from  nominees  of  state 
legislatures. 

2)  In  each  house  individual  vote  and  majority 

decision. 

3)  Eepresentation     according    to     property     or 

population. 

4)  Executive    to    be    chosen    by    the    national 

legislature. 

5)  National    legislature   to    nullify    unconstitu- 

tional state  laws. 

6)  National  judiciary. 

6.  Debate  on  the  Virginia  plan  (Elliot,  I,  150  flf.; 
Fiske,  242-5). 

2.  The  New  Jersey  (Patterson's)  plan;  June  15  (Elliot,  I, 

175-177). 
a.  Leading  features: 

1)  In  general,  the  plan  provided  for  mere  amend- 

ment of  the  Articles. 

2)  An  executive,  in  form  of  council,  to  be  chosen 

by  congress. 

3)  Powers  of  congress  increased  but  no  action  on 

individual ;  vote  by  states. 
h.  Debate  on  scheme;  rejected  June  19   (Elliot,  De- 
lates  I,  177  ff.;  Fiske,  245-50). 

3.  Other  plans. 

a.  Plan  of  Charles  Pinckney,  May  29  (Elliot,  I,  145- 
50)  ;  not  genuine. 

6.  Plan  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  June  18;  centraliza- 
tion (Elliot,  I,  179-80;  Schouler,  I,  41). 

IV.  The  Three  Great  Compromises. 

1.  The  first  or  Connecticut  compromise,  July  7;  state 
representation  (Fiske,  250  ff.;  Elliot,  V,  248-87, 
311-19). 
a.  Lower  house,  composed  of  representatives  chosen 
by  popular  vote  and  distributed  according  to 
population  (one  for  30,000). 
6.  Upper  house,  composed  of  two  senators  from  each 
state,  voting  as  individuals. 


UNITED    STATES.  37 

2.  The  second  or  three-fifths  compromise;  representation 

for  slaves,  July  12  (Elliot,  V,  294-310). 
a.  The  struggle  leading  to  the  compromise. 
6.  Was  the  compromise  just  or  expedient?     Was  it 

open?    (Goodell,  Slavery  and  Anti-slavery,  222-4; 

Fiske,  261-2). 

3.  The  third  or  New  England-South  Carolina  compromise 

(August,  25)  :   slave  trade  and  federal  control  of 

commerce    (Elliot,    I,   256,   374,   375,   V,   545-62, 

477-8,  488-92). 
a.  Why  the  South  opposed  commercial  powers  (Fiske, 

262). 
6.  Slave  trade  granted  till  1808. 

c.  Opposition  of  Mason  and  Virginians. 

d.  Was  the  compromise  necessary? 

REFERENCES. 

1.  General  References:  Fiske,  222-68;  Schouler,  I,  36-37;  Bancroft, 
Const.,  II;  idem,  U.  8.,  VI,  207-70;  Frothingham,  589  ff.;  McMaster, 
I,  417-27,  437-53;  Bryce,  I,  18-25;  Jameson,  Const.  Convention,  ch.  i, 
iii,  iv;  Hildreth,  III,  482  ff.;  Von  Hoist,  I,  49  ff.;  Lalor,  I,  637-40, 
548-49,  II,  973-75;  Johnston  Politics,  10-17;  Curtis,  I,  315  ff.;  Hart, 
121  ff.;  Von  Hoist,  Const.  Law,  15  ff.;  Cooley,  Const.  Law,  15;  Gold- 
win  Smith,  121  ff.;   Foster,  On  the  Const.,  I,  19  ff.,  80  ff. 

2.  The  Compromises:  Fiske,  242-68;  Bancroft,  Const.,  II,  47-48,  128- 
32,  141-4,  151-60;  idem,  U.  8.,  VI,  239-69,  299-301,  315-23;  Curtis,  I, 
368,  314  ff.;  Von  Hoist,  I,  289-91,  293-9;  Hildreth,  III,  494-520;  Gay, 
Madison,  98-114;  Wilson,  Slave  Power,  I,  39-53;  Elliot,  Debates,  I,  V, 
as  cited;  Lalor,  I,  547-9,  II,  973-5;  Foster,  I,  41-44;  Farrand,  in  A.  H. 
R.,  IX,  479. 

3.  Sources:  Elliott's  Debates;  Documentary  Hist,  of  Const.  (3  vols., 
Wash.,  1894);  Madison's  Journal,  in  Elliot,  V;  ibid.,  edited  by  E.  H. 
Scott  (Chicago,  1893);  Hunt's  edition  of  Writings  of  James  Madison, 
II  (1901). 

4.  Pinckney's  Plan:  Jameson,  in  A.  H.  R.,  VIII,  509-511;  "Sketch 
of  Pinckney's  Plan,"  in  ibid.,  IX,  735-47;  Jameson,  in  Report  of  A. 
H.  A.,  1902,  vol.  I;  McLaughlin,  Confederation  and  Constitution, 
194-95. 


Section  XIV.     The  Federal  Convention:    Completion  and 
Ratification  op  the  Constitution. 

A.     The  Details  of  the  Constitution. 

I.  Powers  of  Congress  and  of  the  States  (Fiske,  268-77).^ 

1.  Powers  granted  to   congress    {Const.,  art.   I,   sec.   8; 
art.  Ill,  sec.  3 ;  art.  IV)  ;  the  "general  welfare"  and 


38  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

the  "uniformity  of  taxation"  clauses;  debates  on  the 
power  to  suppress  "domestic  violence"  in  a  state,  etc. 

2.  Powers  denied  to   congress    (art.   I,   sec.   9;   art.   Ill, 

sec.  3) ;  the  debates  on  power  to  issue  "bills  of  credit" 
(Fiske,  273-6;  Elliot,  V,  130,  378,  434-5). 

3.  Powers  denied  the  states  (art.  I,  sec.  14;  Fiske,  272). 

II.  Debates  on  the  Executive  (Fiske,  277-300;  Bancroft,  Comt.^ 
II,  166-94). 

1.  Form:    single  or  plural?    Sherman's  suggestion. 

2.  Tenure:   for   life  or   a   term   of   years?    Whether   re- 

eligible? 

3.  How    to    be    chosen?     By    congress?  ;  By    the    people 

directly?  By  an  electoral  college?  Various  modes 
of  choice  suggested. 

4.  The  electoral  college  (Elliot,  V,  index  at  "Electors"). 

a.  How  should  it  be  constituted?    Various  plans. 

J).  Its  intended  character  and  function  and  the 
practical  result  {Federalist,  423-8;  Bryce,  I,  37- 
41;  Tiedeman,  46-51;  Fiske,  280-4). 

5.  Count  of  the  electoral  votes ;  case  of  1877. 

6.  Choice  of  the  president  on  failure  of  the  electors:    by 

the  senate  or  by  the  house?    The  compromise. 

7.  The    question    of    a   privy    council    for   the   president 

(Elliot,  V,  150,  442,  446,  462,  525-6;  Curtis,  I,  575)  ; 
the  senate's  share  in  appointments  the  result  of  a 
compromise.  Origin  of  the  American  cabinet;  com- 
parison with  the  British. 

8.  Was  the  English  kingship  the  model  of  the  presidency? 

Was  it  wise  to  separate  the  legislative  and  the  ex- 
ecutive departments?     (See  Fiske,  278,  289-93.) 

III.  The  Judicial  Department  (Bancroft,  Const.,  II,  195-206; 
Bryce,  Am.  Commonwealth) . 

1.  Is  the  supreme  court  an  original  feature? 

2.  Is  its  constitutional  function  a  natural  outgrowth  of 

the  jurisdiction  of  the  English  and  colonial  courts? 
(Bryce,  I,  chap.  23). 

3.  Influence  of  Marshall,  1800-1835  {Const.  Hist,  and  Am. 

Law,  55-120). 

4.  Is  the  constitutional  function  wise  or  necessary?     (See 

Smith,  Spirit  of  the  Am.  Government.) 


UNITED    STATES.  39 

IV.  Stages  in  the  Convention's  Work. 

1.  May  25-29:    Organization,  rules,   credentials,   submis- 

sion of  plans. 

2.  May  30  to  July  23:    Debates  on  plans,  compromises, 

and  details. 

3.  July  24:   ^'Committee  of  detail"  appointed  and  the  re- 

sults of  the  proceedings  of  the  convention  referred 
to  it. 

4.  August  6:    Committee  of  detail  submits  a  draft  of  a 

constitution  of  the  United  States  (printed  in  Elliot, 
V,  376-81;  Curtis,  I,  721-8). 

5.  September  8:    Committee  of  five  to  "revise  the  style 

and  arrange  the  articles." 

6.  September  12 :  Committee  of  five  reports  the  final  draft 

in  a  letter  to  congress. 

7.  September  17:   Convention  dissolved. 

V.  Deficiencies  of  the  Constitution. 

1.  No  bill  of  rights. 

2.  Annexation  of  territory  not  foreseen. 

3.  Growth  of  patronage  not  provided  for ;  hence  no  proper 

provision  for  the  civil  service. 

4.  Growth  of  party  organization  not  foreseen. 

5.  No  provisions  for  the  protection  of  national  elections 

and  for  settlement  of  double  returns  (case  of  1877). 

6.  No  express  provision  against  secession. 

7.  Faults  of  the  judicial  system  created. 

B.    Ratification  of  the  Constitution  (Fiske,  306-50). 

I.  Character  of  the  Struggle  and  the  General  Kesults. 

1.  Leaders  of  the  opposition  and  champions  of  the  con- 

stitution. 

2.  Objections    to   the    constitution;    to    the   fundamental 

plan;  to  the  general  coercive  powers  of  the  govern- 
ment; to  the  deficiencies;  miscellaneous  objections 
(Federalist,  226-8;  Story,  I,  206-20;  Wilson,  in  Elliot, 
II,  497  ff.). 

3.  Formation  of  parties:  federalists  and  anti-federalists. 

II.  Progress  of  Eatification. 

1.  Delaware,  December  7,  1787  (Elliot,  I,  319;  Bancroft, 
Const.,  II,  248-50). 


40  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

2.  Pennsylvania,   December  13,   1787:    Objection  to  two 

bouses;  pampblet  war  (Elliot,  I,  310-20,  II,  415-546; 
Bancroft,  Const.,  II,  238-48).  James  Wilson  ex- 
pounds tbe  constitution. 

3.  New  Jersey,  December  18,  1787  (Elliot,  I,  320-1;  Ban- 

croft, Const,  II,  252-4). 

4.  Georgia,  January  2,   1788    (Elliot,   I,  324;   Bancroft, 

Const,  II,  254). 

5.  Connecticut,  January  9,  1788  (Ellliot,  I,  321-2,  II,  185- 

202;  Bancroft,  II,  255-8). 

6.  Massachusetts,  February  7,  1788   (Elliot,  I,  322-3,  II, 

1-183;  Bancroft,  Const,  258-76).  Influence  of  John 
Adams?  Of  Hancock?  Of  Nathan  Dane?  Of  King 
and  the  clergy?     Amendments  recommended. 

7.  Maryland,  April  28,  1788    (Elliot,  I,  324,  II,  547-56; 

Bancroft,  Const,  II,  277-84). 

8.  South   Carolina,    May   23,   1788    (Elliot,    I,    325,    IV, 

253-342;  Bancroft,  Const.,  II,  285-94);  Lowndes^s 
speech  (Fiske,  332-4;  Elliot,  IV,  271-2). 

9.  New   Hampshire,    June   21,    1788    (Elliot,    I,    325-7)  ; 

amendments  suggested. 

10.  Virginia,  June  26,  1788    (Elliot,  I,  327,  III,  entire; 

Bancroft,  Const.,  II,  225-237,  295  ff.)  ;  Henry's  in- 
fluence (Tyler,  Henry,  270-301;  Fiske,  331-2);  in- 
fluence of  R.  H.  Lee  and  Mason?  Of  Randolph?  Of 
Madison  ?    Washington  ?    Marshall  ? 

11.  New  York,  July  26,  1788   (Elliot,  I,  327-31,  II,  205- 

414);  influence  of  Hamilton;  character  of  the 
Federalist;  influence  of  Clinton,  Yates,  Lansing? 

12.  North  Carolina,  forced  in,  November  21,  1789  (Elliot, 

I,  331-2,  333,  IV,  1-252)  ;  bill  of  rights  ought  to  be 
drafted. 

13.  Rhode  Island,  forced  in,  May  20,  1790  (Elliot,  I, 
334-337)  ;  declaration  of  rights 

III.  Movement  Toward  a  Second  Constitutional  Convention 
(Smith,  in  Jameson's  Essays,  46-115). 

IV.  Character  of  the  Ratification  (Hart,  Outline,  35). 

1.  Forms:  by  what  persons;  in  whose  name;  in  what 
terms;  conditions  and  recommendations  (Elliot,  I, 
319-335). 


UNITED  STATES.  41 

2.  Theory  of  ratification  by  "states"    (Hayne,  in  Elliot, 

IV,  510). 

3.  Theory  of  ratification  by  the  people  (Lalor,  III,  1003, 

789;  Frothingham,  599-602). 

a.  "The  people  in  independent  communities"  (Cal- 
houn, in  Works,  VI,  151-2). 

6.  "The  people  in  each  of  the  states"  (Madison,  North 
American  Review^  vol.  31,  p.  538). 

c.  "The  people  of  the  United  States"  (Webster,  in 
Elliot,  IV,  498-9;  Story,  Commentaries^  I,  sees. 
262-3). 

4.  Theory  of  ratification  by  both  people  and  states. 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Details  of  the  Constitution:  Fiske,  268  ff.;  Curtis,  I,  333-60^; 
Landon,  63-82;  Bancroft,  Const.,  II,  89-97,  119-164;  idem,  Hist.,  VI, 
255-76,  292-367;  Hildreth,  III,  485-526;  Elliot,  DeMtes,  V  (the  table  of 
contents  gives  a  summary  for  each  day's  work) ;  Doc.  Hist,  of  Const. 

2.  Ratification  of  the  Constitution:  Elliot,  II,  III,  IV;  Federalist; 
Von  Hoist,  I,  52-75;  Story,  I,  sees.  281-92;  Lalor,  I,  99,  606-7,  II,  165; 
McMaster,  I,  454  ff.;  Curtis,  I,  623-97;  Bryce,  I,  23-5;  Harding,  Fed- 
eral Const,  in  Mass.;  Hildreth,  III,  533-6;  Schouler,  I,  5-70;  Froth- 
ingham, 579-603;  Republic  of  Republics,  73-147,  433-56;  Lodge,  Ham- 
ilton, 65-80;  Bancroft,  Const.,  II,  225-367;  Gay,  Madison,  115-27;  Morse, 
Jefferson,  92-5;  Hosmer,  Samuel  Adams,  392-491;  Tyler,  Henry,  279- 
301;  Landor,  82-96;  Bancroft,  Hist.,  VI,  374-462;  Morse,  Hamilton,  I, 
238-75;  Foster,  I;  A.  H.  R.,  IX,  310  ff.  (Patterson's  papers);  Steiner, 
in  A.  H.  R.,  V,  207   (Maryland). 

3.  Electoral  College  and  the  Executive:  Elliot,  V,  334-50,  358-70; 
Landon,  70-71;  Tiedeman,  Unwritten  Const.,  40-51;  Bryce,  Common- 
wealth, I,  37-41;  Curtis,  I,  425,  455,  563-6;  Bancroft,  Const,  II,  166-194; 
idem,  Hist.,  VI,  326  ff.;  Fiske,  280  ff.;  Madison,  Papers,  III,  Index  at 
Elxecutive;    Story,  II,  sees.  1410-1488. 

In  General:  See  Hunt's  Writings  of  Madson,  IV;  and  Documentary 
History  of  Constitution,  comparing  with  Elliot's  Debates.  The  latest 
and  fullest  discussion  of  the  work  of  the  Convention  and  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution  is  McLaughlin,  Confederation  and  Constitution, 
184-317.     He  has  a  good  bibliography,  332-36. 


Section  XV.     Sources  and  Character  of  the  Constitution 
OF  THE  United  States. 

I.  What  Is  a  "Constitution"?  Definition  (Story,  I,  sees.  339- 
40;  Const,  of  United  States,  art.  6;  Jameson,  67-8;  Tiede- 
man, 16;  Cooley,  Const.  Limit.,  4;  idem,  Principles  of 
Const.  Laiv,  21). 


42  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

II.  Varieties     of     Constitutions:     Jameson's     Classification 
(Const.  Convention^  67-87). 

1.  A   constitution,    considered    as   a   "fact''    or^   organic 

growth,  may  be: 
fa.  Absolute  monarchy  or  aristocracy. 
6.  Oligarchy. 

c.  Limited  monarchy. 

d.  Republic  (democratic  republic). 

e.  Democracy. 

f.  Federal  or  non-federal. 

2.  A  constitution,  considered  as  a  source  of  evidence,  may 

be: 

a.  A  cumulative  constitution  1   ,     ,  ,      .      .   . 

-.     .  ,    -,  x-^  4..  >  As  to  mode  of  ormn. 

ft.  An  enacted  constitution     J  ® 

c.  Unwritten  constitution    'I  x\s  to  characteristic  as 

d.  Written  constitution        |  evidence. 


III.  Sources  of  the  Federal  Constitution    (Foster,   I,  27-60; 
Stevens,  Sources  of  the  Constitution) . 

1.  From  the  English  constitution:  the  principal  elements 

are  a  part  of  our  English  heritage. 

2.  From  American  experience:  evolution  of  the  written 

instrument  (see  Morey,  in  Annals  of  Am.  Acad., 
1,529-57). 

a.  Commercial  charters. 

6.  Charters  of  government :  charters  of  Rhode  Island, 
1644,  1663;  of  Connecticut,  1662;  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 1691. 

c.  Popular   constitutions:     charters   of   New   Haven^ 

1638-9 ;  of  Connecticut,  1639. 

d.  The  state  constitutions,  1775-87. 

e.  Experiments   in   federal   government:    New   Eng- 

land Confederacy,  1643-84;  Confederation; 
Franklin's  plans,  1754,  1775 ;  other  plans,  already 
discussed. 

3.  Question    of    Dutch    influence     (see    Campbell,     The 

Puritan,  I,  1-89,  II,  405  ff.,  465-8). 

4.  Principal  features  often  alleged  to  be  new  (of.  Robin- 

son, in  Annals  of  Am.  Acad.,  I,  203  iBf.). 
a.  Constitutional  function  of  the  supreme  court  (see 
Bryce's    review.    Commonwealth,    I,    ch.    xxiii; 


UNITED   STATES.  43 

Atlcmtic,  November,  1892,  700;  Wilson,  H.  H., 
Unwritten  Elements ,  420-3). 
6.  The  dual  statehood  or  dual  sovereignty :  relation  of 
the  state  to  the  federal  government;  only  the  civil 
war  could  settle  the  real  sovereignty  (Tiedeman, 
110-28). 

c.  Popular  sovereignty :  the  subjection  of  all  govern- 

mental agencies  to  the  will  of  the  people.  This 
is  now  threatened  (1)  by  corruption  of  the  bal- 
lot; (2)  by  suppression  of  free  and  fair  repre- 
sentation; (3)  by  abuse  of  courts. 

d.  The  system  of  "checks  and  balances" :  this  is  now 

breaking  down  through  the  encroachments  of  de- 
partments on  each  other's  sphere   (Wilson,  W., 
Congressional  Govt.,  10-14). 
5.  Practical  result :  a  new  and  most  significant  experiment 
in  self-government. 

IV.  Theory  of  the  Nature  of  the  Constitution  (Story,  I,  221- 
72;  Elliot,  II,  496  ff.   (various  opinions)  ;  Hart,  Formation 

of  the  Union,  133-6;  Bryce,  I,  ch.  28;  Wilson,  475-9) 

1.  Is  the  constitution  a  "social  compact"  or  a  "voluntary 
association"?  (Southern  view:  see  Tucker,  in 
Story,  I,  sees.  310-18;  idem,  I,  sees.  306-9,  310-72; 
Republic  of  Repuhlics,  5^-61,  561-571;  Elliot,  IV, 
509  ff.,  523,  540-545,  547-8;  denied  by  Wilson,  in 
Elliot,  II,  407-9;  Cooley,  Principles  of  Const, 
Law,  25-6;  Jameson,  69-74;  Webster,  Works,  III, 
448-505.) 
a.  Whether  the  compact  was  in  form : 

1)  A  "treaty"  or  "convention." 

2)  A  "league." 

3)  A  "contract." 

6.  Between  whom  was  it  a  compact? 

1)  Were  the  states,  as  distinguished  from  the 
people  of  the  states,  the  only  parties? 
(Hayne,  in  Elliot,  IV,  510;  Virginia  resolu- 
tions, 1778;  Kentucky  resolutions,  1778-9,  in 
Elliot,  IV,  528  ff.,  540  ff.;  compare  contra, 
Story,  I,  sees.  361-3;  Webster,  in  Elliot,  IV, 
408-9;  Webster,  Works,  III,  346,  440  ff.) 


44  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

2)  Were  the  people  of  each  state,  or  of  the  whole 

United  States,  a  party?    (Story,  I,  sees.  358- 
60,  365,  notes.) 

3)  Was  the  federal  government  a  party?    (Story, 

I,  sees.  367-8,  notes.) 

2.  Does  the   constitution  rest   upon  the   consent  of  the 

people?  (Webster,  in  reply  to  Hayne,  in  Elliot,  IV, 
498  ff.;  Webster,  Works,  III,  448  ff.;  Wilson,  in 
Elliot,  II,  497-9;  denied  by  Hart,  Formation  of  the 
Union,  134.) 

3.  Is  the  constitution  an   "instrument  of  government"? 

(Story,  I,  sees.  339-40,  372;  Draper,  Civil  War,  I, 
285-6 ;  Von  Hoist,  Const.  Law,  43-4,  49-66 ;  Cooley,  in 
Const.  History  and  Amer.  Law,  29-34;  idem,  Const. 
Limit.,  5.) 

4.  Are  the  states  sovereign?    (For  the  various  arguments, 

see  Calhoun,  Works,  VI,  151-2,  59  ff.,  94  ff.;  Lalor, 
III,  788-800;  Republic  of  RepuUics,  325-334;  Von 
Hoist,  Const.  Law,  39-47;  Webster,  in  Elliot,  IV, 
499;  Hayne,  in  Elliot,  IV,  509  ff.;  Ordronaux,  Const. 
Legislation,  48-91,  111  ff. ;  especially  Tiedeman,  110- 
28.) 

V.  Growth  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 

1.  Through  amendment;   difficulty   of  amendment;   more 

than  1700  amendments  have  been  offered,  1789-1905, 
only  15  adopted  (see  Ames,  in  Am.  Hist.  Papers,  V, 
19-20). 

2.  The  constitution  is  not  a  complete  scheme  of  govern- 

ment; the  powers  of  the  state  are  not  expressed. 

3.  Principles  of  expansion: 

a.  Is  there  an  "unwritten  constitution"  in  the  sense 
of  a  common  law  or  custom,  superior  to  the 
written  instrument;  and  does  its  sanction  rest 
upon  public  opinion?  (The  view  of  Tiedeman, 
Unwritten  Constitution,  1-45,  145-55,  passim. 
Cf.  Story,  I,  sec.  400.) 

1).  Is  the  United  States  government  one  of  "enu- 
merated" powers  (see  10th  amendment)  ?  Or 
may  the  federal  government  exercise  powers  pro- 


UNITED   STATES.  45 

hibited  to  the  state,  but  not  delegated  to  the 
United  States?     (Tiedeman,  137-44.) 

c.  Significant    clauses    of   the    constitution    favoring 

expansion:  "general  welfare"  clause;  clause  re- 
lating to  laws  "necessary  and  proper"  to  enforce 
the  powers  of  congress;  commerce  clause,  etc. 

d.  Influence  of  judicial  interpretation :   Marshall's  de- 

cisions (Const.  Hist,  ami  Amer.  Law,  91  ff.; 
Wilson,  H.  H.,  421-2).  Doctrine  of  "implied 
powers." 

e.  Influence  of  executive  action :   Louisiana  purchase, 

Monroe  doctrine,  etc. 

f.  Influence  of  legislative  action. 

1)  Growth   of   the   speaker's   powers    (Hart,   in 

Atlantic,  March,  1891;  Follett,  Speakership) . 

2)  Growth  of  committee  government   (Bryce,  I, 

chap.  15 ;  Wilson,  Congressional  Government , 
64  ff.). 

3)  Senatorial  patronage,  etc. 

g.  Elasticity  of  the  unwritten  or  "customary"  con- 

stitution of  England,  as  compared  with  the 
elasticity  of  the  so-called  "rigid"  or  "paper"  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.  ^ 

VI.  Examples   of   Unsettled   Constitutional   Questions    (sug- 
gested as  a  guide  to  study). 

1.  National  status  of  slavery;  meaning  of  the  "fugitive 

slave,"  the  "three-fifths,"  and  the  slave-trade  clauses; 
of  the  word  "persons"  (Dred  Scott  case,  1856-7). 

2.  Question  of  "dual"  citizenship,  state  and  federal  (Cal- 

houn, Works,  II,  242;  Tiedeman,  91-109). 

3.  Status  of  the  territories  (Missouri  Compromise,  1820; 

compromises  of  1850:    Story  II,  sees.  1917,  1920-1); 
recent  "insular"  decisions. 

4.  Meaning  of  "republican  form  of  government"   (period 

of  "reconstruction"). 

5.  Extent  of  power  to  regulate   commerce,   "encourage- 

ment of  manufactures,"  embargoes,  etc. 

6.  Extent  of  the  powers  of  the  state. 

7.  Extent  of  war  powers    (paper  money,   suspension   of 

habeas  corpus,  emancipation,  control  of  corporations). 


46  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

8.  Question  of  removal  from  and  tenure  of  office. 

9.  Question  of  constructive  powers;  of  police  power. 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Sources  of  the  Constitution:  H!art,  Formation  of  the  Union, 
5-10,  124-5;  Stevens,  Sources  of  the  Const.:  Foster,  I,  27-60;  Bryce,  I, 
25-8;  Wilson,  State,  473-5;   Cooley,  Const.  Limitations,  32  fE.,  7  ff. 

2.  Growth  of  the  Constitution:  Tiedeman,  Unwritten  Constitution; 
Wilson  (H.  H.),  Unwritten  Elements  of  National  Const.;  Wilson  (W.), 
Congressional  Government;  McConachie,  Congressional  Committees; 
Willoughby,  American  Constitutional  System;  Borgeaud,  Adoption  and 
Amendment  of  Constitutions;  idem,  "Origin  of  Written  Constitutions," 
in  Pol  Sc.  Quart.,  VII,  613-32;  Higgins,  "The  Rigid  Constitution,"  in 
iUd.,  XX.  203-22. 


Section  XVI.     John  Marshall  and  the  Interpretation  op 
THE  Constitution. 

I.  Characteristics  of  John  Marshall  (1755-1835). 

1.  Parentage  and  early  education. 

2.  Services  in  the  Eevolution;  as  a  soldier;  as  a  judge 

advocate  of  the  army. 

3.  Legal  education  (1779-81). 

4.  At  the  Bar,  1781-1801. 

a.  State  of  Virginia  law  after  the  Revolution;  Mar- 
shall's peculiar  fitness  for  his  task  (Magruder, 
28  ff.). 

&.  Personal  appearance;  style  of  speaking  (Howe, 
Historical  Collections,  266;  Wirt,  in  Magruder, 
35-37;  Gilmer,  in  Magruder,  66;  Adams,  U.  S., 
1,193). 

c.  Prestige  as  a  lawyer;  the  case  of  Ware  v.  Hilton, 
1796  (3  Dallas,  199;  Const.  Hist,  and  Amer.  Law, 
67). 

II.  Public  Services,  1782-1801. 

1.  In  the  legislature,  1782,  1784,  1787;  in  the  executive 

council,  1783. 

2.  In  the  Virginia  constitutional  convention,  1788   (Ma- 

gruder,  57-87:   three  speeches,   on   taxation,   militia, 
and  judiciary  (Elliot,  III,  222,  419,  551-5). 

3.  A  member  of  the  French  mission,  1797-8. 

4.  In  congress,  1799-1801. 

5.  Refuses  appointment  as  minister  to  France,  attorney 


UNITED   STATES.  47 

general,  judge  of  supreme  court,  and  secretary  of  war 
(1796-1801). 

6.  Became  secretary  of  state. 

7.  Appointed  chief  justice,  January  31,  1801. 

III.  Marshall  and  Jefferson. 

1.  Marshall's  "Life  of  Washington" ;  and  Jefferson's  Anas. 

2.  Marshall  and  the  inauguration  of  Jefferson    (Adams, 

U.  S.,  I,  193). 

IV.  John  Marshall  and  the  Settlement  of  the  Constitution. 

1.  Significance  of  his  opportunity:  what  the  constitution 

"might  have  been"  through  a  different  interpreta- 
tion. 

a.  Complexity  of  his  task. 

6.  Popular  sentiment  regarding  the  constitution 
(Von  Hoist,  I,  62-3,  83;  Bryce,  I,  223;  Bancroft, 
Constitution,  II,  363  (Washington)  ;  Marshall, 
Washington,  V.  33). 

2.  He  reveals  the  powers  of  the  supreme  court. 

a.  Previous  to  1801  less  than  100  decisions  by  the 

court. 
6.  Of  these  decisions,  only  six  involved  constitutional 
questions. 

1)  Chisholm  v.   Georgia,   1792-4    (2  Dallas,  419, 

480;  C07ist.  History,  70-1). 

2)  Hollingsworth  v.  Virginia  (3  Dallas,  378  ff.). 

3)  Fowler  v.  Lindsey,  1799  (3  Dallas,  411).     Cf. 

Marshall's  decision  in  Osborn  v.  U.  S.  Bank 
(9  Wheaton,  846-859). 

4)  Hylton  v.  U.   S.,  1796   (3  Dallas,  171).     Cf. 

Pacific  Ins.  Co.  v.  Soule  (7  Wallace,  433-4). 

5)  Calder  v.  Bull,  1798,  relating  to  ex  post  facto 

laws  (3  Dallas,  386). 

6)  Cooper  v.    Telfair,  1800  (4  Dallas,  14). 

In  the  last  two  cases,  the  court  does  not 
decide  that  it  can  declare  unconstitutional 
laws  void  (see  Const.  History,  72-3,  and  the 
authorities  there  cited).  Hayburn's  case, 
1792  (2  Dallas,  410),  illustrates  the  early 
timidity  of  the  court  (Const.  Hist.,  73-6). 


48  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

c.  Immense  number  of  Marshall's  opinions,  1801-1835. 

1)  In  all,  1215  reported  cases. 

2)  In  1106  of  these  opinions  are  filed,  Marshall 

rendering  519. 

3)  Of  these  1106  opinions,  62  involved  constitu- 

tional points,  Marshall  rendering  36. 

V.  Some  Leading  Decisions. 

1.  Mar  bury  v.  Madison,  1803   (1  Granch,  137). 

2.  ^'Olmstead   case":    United    States   v.    Peters,    1809    (5 

Cranch,  137;  Hildreth,  III,  chap.  xxii). 

3.  Cohens  v.  Virginia,  1821  (6  Wheaton,  264).    Cf,  Martin 

V.  Hunter's  Lessee,  1816  (1  Wheaton,  304,  323,  362). 

4.  McCulloch  V.  Maryland,  1819  (4  Wheaton,  416,  421). 

5.  Osborn   v.   Bank   of  United   States,   1824;   Weston   v. 

Charleston,  1829  (9  Wheaton,  738;  2  Peters,  440). 

6.  American  Insurance  Co,  v.  Canter,  1828  (1  Peters,  511, 

542). 

7.  Fletcher  v.  Peck,  1810   (6  Cranch,  87  135-40;  cf.  Has- 

kins,  in  American  Historical  Association,  Papers,  V, 
395  ff.). 

8.  Dartmouth  College  v.   Woodward,   1819    (4  Wheaton, 

518 ;  cf.  Van  Santvoord,  Lives  of  Chief  Justices j  394- 
98). 

9.  Ogden  v.  Saunders,  1827   (12  Wheaton,  213). 

10.  The  Burr  trial  (4  Cranch,  note  B,  473;  Adams,  United 
States,  III,  441-71;  Robertson,  Burr  Trial  (Phila- 
delphia, 1808);  Kennedy,  Life  of  Wirt,  I,  161-206; 
Van  Santvoord,  364-79). 

REFERENCES. 

Hitchcock,  "Constitutional  Development  of  the  United  States  as 
Influenced  by  Chief  Justice  Marshall,"  in  Constitutional  History,  etc., 
53-120;  Story,  Miscellaneous  Writings,  183-200;  Thayer  (J.  B.),  John 
Marshall  (Boston,  1901);  Dillon  (J.  F.),  John  Marshall  (Chicago, 
1903);  Centennial  Anniversary  (Philadelphia,  1901),  containing,  21-66, 
J.  T.  Mitchell's  oration;  Craighill,  in  his  Virginia  Peerage,  I,  229-84; 
Flanders,  Lives  and  Times  of  the  Chief  Justices,  279-550;  Lodge,  in 
his  Fighting  Frigate,  etc.  (New  York,  1902);  Phelps,  in  his  Orations 
and  Essays  (New  York,  1901);  Libby,  John  Marshall  (Brunswick, 
1901) ;  Draper,  John  Marshall  and  the  March  of  the  Constitution  (n. 
p.,  1901);  Marshall  (John),  Writings  on  the  Federal  Constitution 
(Boston,  1830;  Washington,  1890);  Magruder,  John  Marshall  (Boston, 
1885);  Cooley,  "Supreme  Court,"  in  Constitutional  History,  27-52; 
Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  133-5;  Carson,  Supreme  Court;  Bassett, 
The  Federalist  System,  Index;  Channing,  The  Jeffersonian  System. 
Index. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ORIGIN   AND    CHARACTER   OP   THE    FEDERAL   CONSTITUTION 
OF  SWITZERLAND. 


Section  XVII.    Preliminaries  of  Swiss  Federal  History. 

I.  Character  of  the  Available  Literature. 

1.  Bibliographies. 

Hart  (A.  B.),  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Federal  Govern- 
ment  (1891),  45-7,  62-7,  185-87.  An  excellent  bibliograph- 
ical-historical manual. 

McCrackan  (405-16)  and  Vincent  (228-39)  give  lists  of  au- 
thorities. 

Special  Card  Catalogue  of  the  Department  of  Political  Science 
and  Sociology. 

2.  Source  books. 

Bluntschli  (J.  C),  Urkundenduch :  being  vol.  II  of  his  Bundes- 

rechtes  (1875). 
Gisi    (W.),    Quellenhuch    zur    Schweizergeschichte     (Band   I, 

1869). 
Oechsli    (W.),   Quellenhuch  zur  Schweizergeschichte   (2d  ed., 

1901).     Relates   to  institutions. 
Oechsli    (W.),    Quellenhuch   zur    Schweizergeschichte.     Neue 

Folge   (1893).     Relates  to  Culture-History. 
Text  of  the  Constitution.     See  later  syllabus. 

3.  Maps. 

Freeman  (E.  A.),  Historical  Geography ,  I,  268-76,  maps  XXV- 
XXXI. 

Droysen,  Atlas,  Plate  25. 

Century  Atlas;  maps  in  the  standard  atlases  and  encyclopae- 
dias. 

Maps  in  the  works  of  Rilliet,  Winchester,  and  Adams  and 
Cunningham. 

4.  General  histories. 

Dawson  (W.  N.),  Social  Switzerland   (1897). 

Dandliker   (K.),  Oeschichte  der  Schweiz   (3  vols.,  1892-1902). 

The  best  work. 
Dierauer    (J),    Geschichte   der   schweizerischen   Eidgenossen- 

schaft  (Bd.  I,  1887).     An  excellent  book. 

4  (49) 


50  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

Hug  (L.)  and  Stead  (R.),  Switzerland,  in  Story  of  the  Nations 
Series  (1889).    Best  short  work  in  Englisli. 
Zschokke    (H.   and   E.),   History  of   Switzerland.     Trans,   by 
Shaw  (1855). 

5.  General  works  suitable  for  obtaining  a  comprehensive 

view  of  the  whole  course. 

Adams  (F.  O.)  and  Cunningham  (C.  D.),  The  Swiss  Confed- 
eration  (1889). 

Blumer  (J.  J.),  Staats-  und  Rechtsgeschichte  der  schweizer- 
ischen  Demokratien   (2  vols.,  1850-58). 

Blumer  (J.  J.),  Handhuch  des  schweizerischen  Bundesstaats- 
recht   (1881). 

Bluntschli  (J.  C),  Staats-  und  Rechtsgeschichte  der  Stadt  und 
Landschaft  Zurich  (2d  ed.,  1856). 

Bluntschli  (J.  C),  Oeschichte  des  schweizerischen  Bundes- 
rechtes   (2d  ed.,  2  vols.,   1875). 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Federal  Government  in  Switzerland  Com- 
pared with  that  of  Canada  (1890). 

Daguet  (A.),  Histoire  de  la  Confederation  Suisse  (7th  ed., 
2  vols.,  1879-80). 

Droz   (N.),  Instruction  Civique  (1885). 

Dubs  (J.),  Droit  Publique  de  la  Confederation  Sjiisse  (2  vols.). 

Lowell  (A.  L.),  Governments  and  Parties  in  Continental  Eu- 
rope (2  vols.,  1896). 

McCrackan  (W.  D.),  The  Rise  of  the  Swiss  RepuUic  (2d  ed., 
1901). 

Moses   (B.),  The  Federal  Government  of  Switzerland   (1889). 

Richman  (I.  B.),  Appenzell  (1895). 

Rilliet  (A.),  Les  Origines  de  la  Confederation  Suisse  (2d  ed., 
1869). 

Riittimann,  Nordamerikaiiisches  Bundesrecht  verglichen  mit 
den  politischen  Einrichtungen  der  Schweiz  (2  vols.,  1867- 
72). 

Vincent  (J.  M.),  State  and  Federal  Government  in  Switzer- 
land (1891). 

Vincent  (J.  M.),  Government  in  Switzerland,  in  Citizens'  Li- 
drary. 

Winchester   (B.),  The  Swiss  Republic  (1891). 

6.  Short  accounts. 

Bluntschli,  Theory  of  the  State,  440-49;  Freeman,  Federal 
Government,  Index;  Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  II, 
Index  at  "Swiss  Constitution  and  Government";  Cool- 
idge,  in  Britannica,  XXII,  819-835;  Freeman,  in  Fort- 
nightly Review,  II,  533-48;  or  in  Essays,  I,  314-72;  Mc- 
Crackan, "Six  Centuries  of  Self-Government,"  in  Atlantic, 
LXVIII  (1891),  257-63;  Moses,  "Antecedents  of  Swiss  Fed- 
eration," in  Overland  Monthly,  XI  (1887),  474-88;  Wool- 
sey.  Political  Science,  II,  208-23;  Wilson,  The  State,  301- 
33;  Vincent,  "Study  in  Swiss  History,"  in  American  Hist. 


SWITZERLAND.  51 

Association,  Papers  (1887),  III,  146-164;  idem,  "Switzer- 
land, 1291-1891,"  in  Nation  (1891),  LIII,  119-20;  idem, 
"Municipal  Problems  in  Switzerland,"  in  American  Hist 
Association,  Report  (1902),  I,  211-21;  idem,  "Switzerland 
at  the  Beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  in  J.  H.  U. 
8.  (1904),  XXII,  No.  5. 
Note. — The  literature  available  in  the  Library,  as  noted  in  the 
"Special  Card  Catalogue,"  will  be  given  as  each  particu- 
lar subdivision  of  the  subject  is  reached. 

II.  Characteristics  of  Swiss  Federal  History  (Freeman,  Fed- 
eral GovermneTit,  271  ff.;  Dandliker,  I,  13-30). 

1.  An  example  of  slow  and  complex  evolution. 

2.  In  its  seven  phases  of  development,  it  represents  every 

variety  of  combination  from  the  mere  "pact"  to  the 
"Bundesstaat"  on  the  American  model. 

3.  Consequently  it  discloses  the  weakness  as  well  as  the 

strength  of  the  federal  type. 

a.  Subject  territories  of  many  varieties,  often  sel- 
fishly ruled. 

&.  Oligarchy  and  aristocracy  versus  democracy. 

G.  Secessions  as  the  result  of  the  sentiment  of  state 
autonomy  and  factionlism. 

d.  Highly  developed  local  self-government  with  strong 
central  authority  (since  1848,  1874). 

4.  Furnishes  examples  of  city-states  uniting^with  tribal 

states. 

5.  Furnishes  examples  of  heroic  struggle  for  free  institu- 

tions (14th  and  15th  centuries)  ;  and  of  dignified 
courage  under  French  encroachments  (18th  and  19th 
centuries) . 

III.  The  Antecedents  of  Swiss  Federal  History,  to  1291  (Mc- 
Crackan,  13-62;  Winchester,  9-11;  Moses,  1-14;  Vincent,  1-7; 
idem,  minor  papers  above  cited;  Rilliet,  3-94;  Dandliker,  I, 
31-388;  Oechsli,  9-65). 

1.  Ethnology  and  earliest  notices;  lake  dwellers. 

2.  The  Helvetians  and  the  Roman  occupation. 

3.  Influence  of  Rome;  Christianity  introduced. 

4.  The  sway   of   Alamanni,   Burgundians,   Franks;    com- 

munal institutions. 

5.  Outline  of  events  to  1291. 

a.  Relations  to  Austria. 

t.  Geography  of  Switzerland;  ancient  Burgundy. 


52  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

Section   XVIII.     First   Phase   of   Federal   History:     The 
League  of  Three  Cantons,  1291-1332. 

I.  The  "Pact"  of  Uri,  Schwiz,  and  Unterwalden. 

1.  August  1,  1291 :  The  "eternal  pact"  of  the  three  "Wald- 

statte  (the  text,  in  Oechsli,  65-66,  Grerman;  Win- 
chester, 473-477,  the  original  Latin  and  in  English; 
McCrackan,  87-89,  English;  Rilliet,  413-15,  Latin; 
Vincent,  191-93;  Bluntschli,  II,  1-2,  Latin). 

2.  October  16,  1291:     The  "treaty"  between  Zurich,  Uri, 

and  Schwiz  (text,  in  Oechsli,  67-8;  Rilliet,  415-17). 

II.  Rise   of   the   Privilege   of   Reichsunmittelbarkeit   or   Im- 
mediate Dependence  on  the  Empire. 

1.  Uri:    Charter  of  liberty  of  King  Henry  (son  of  Fred. 

II,  d.  1242;  K.  of  Romans),  May  26,  1231  (Oechsli, 
63;  McCrackan,  76);  confirmed  by  Rudolf  of  Haps- 
burg,  1273;  rescript  of  Emperor  Adolf,  November  30, 
1297  (Rilliet,  419)  ;  confirmation  by  Henry  VII 
(idem,  420). 

2.  Schwiz:    Charter  of  liberty  of  Emperor  Frederic  II, 

December,  1240  (Oechsli,  63-4;  McCrackan,  79-80). 
Not  enforced;  therefore  a  league  with  Unterwalden 
formed  against  Count  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg-Laufen- 
burg,  1245)  ;  this  followed  by  the  Bull  of  Innocent 
IV,  August  28,  1247  (Oechsli,  64)  ;  Schwiz  favored  by 
Rudolf  III  of  Hapsburg- Austria,  1273,  who  became 
emperor,  1273-91 ;  rescript  of  Adolf,  1297 ;  the  charter 
of  Frederick  II  confirmed  by  Henry  VII,  June  3, 
1309  (Oechsli,  93;  Rilliet,  419-420). 

3.  Unterwalden:    liberated  by  Henry  VII,  June  3,  1309 

(Oechsli,  93;  Rilliet,  421). 

III.  The  Battle  of  Morgarten,  November  15,  1315. 

1.  Causes   of  the  uprising  of  the  cantons    (McCrackan, 

116-22;  Vincent,  7-9;  Bluntschli,  Bundesrecht,  I, 
66  ff.). 

2.  Description  (Oechsli,  94-7;  McCrackan,  123-26;  Blunt- 

schli, I,  70). 

3.  Results.. 

IV.  Renewal  of  the  Pact  of  the  Three  Cantons,  December  9,- 


SWITZERLAND.  53 

1315  (Oechsli,  97-99;  Rilliet,  425-28;  Bluntschli,  I,  71-2,  II, 
2-4). 

1.  Analysis  of  the  19  sections. 

2.  What  new  provisions  important  for  federal  constitu- 

tions? 

V.  Peace  between  Cantons  and  Austria,   1318;   annually  re- 

newed, to  1323. 

1.  Provisions  (Bluntschli,  I,  72-74). 

2.  Feudal  and  manorial  privileges  of  Duke  Frederick  of 

Hapsburg  annulled  and  his  subjects  freed  by  Lewis 
of  Bavaria,  1324. 

VI.  Origin  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  and  that  of  the  United 

States  Compared   (McCrackan,  111-115). 

REFERENCES. 

Rilliet,  53-165;  McCrackan,  1-91,  111-128;  Bluntschli,  Bundesrecht, 
I,  62-76,  passim,  II,  1-4;  Moses,  10-17;  Adams  and  Cunningham,  1-5; 
Winchester,  as  cited;   Dandliker,  I,  368-426,  passm;  Oechsli,  as  cited. 


Section  XIX.     The  Second  Phase  of  Federal  History  :    The 
League  of  Eight  Cantons   (States),  1332-1353. 

I.  Lucerne  Enters  the  League,  1332. 

1.  Location  of  the  city  and  district  in  ancient  Aargau; 

a  fief  of  the  abbey  of  Murbach  in  Elsass  (Alsace). 

a.  The  abbot  had  feudal  territoral  rights  and  juris- 
diction in  the  Meyerhof  (mayor's  court). 

J).  But  the  counts  of  Hapsburg,  who  were  counts  of 
Elsass,  were  (ca.  1239)  granted  the  rights  of 
Church- Vogt  (general  .steward)  for  Lucerne; 
these  rights  were  delegated  to  the  nobles  of 
Rotenburg  who  as  Vogte  (local  bailiffs)  held 
police  courts;  and  the  Church- Vogt  may  have 
been  represented  in  the  city  by  a  Schultheiss 
(local  magistrate). 

2.  How  the  constitution  of  the  city  grew  out  of  these 

conditions:    rise  of  the  "Ammann"  and  the  "Rath" 
or  council;  the  charter  of  1252. 

3.  All  rights  of  the  city  sold  to  Austria  (House  of  Haps- 

burg), 1291. 

4.  The  union  of  the  four  forest  cantons,  1332    (Oechsli, 


54  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

117-19;  compare  Vincent,  9-10;  Bluntschli,  I,  77-87, 
II,  5-7;  McCrackan,  129-135). 
5.  The   alleged    conspiracy    (Mordnacht)    of    1343    (Mo- 
Crackan,  133-4). 

II.  Zurich    Enters    the    League,    1351    (McCrackan,    136-46; 
Bluntschli,  I,  87-96). 

1.  The   four   constituent   settlements  of  medieval  Zurich 

(9th  century-  onward) . 

a.  A  community  of  free  Alamanni  at  foot  of  Zurich- 
berg.     Subject  to  the  Count  of  Zilrichgau. 

&.  An  imperial  Pfalz  (castle)  on  the  Lindenhof ;  sur- 
rounded by  dependents  called  fiscalini.  Subject 
to  an  imperial  bailiff  (Reichsvogt). 

c.  A   Miinster,    with   canons   and   cloister-school,    on 

right  bank  of  the  Limmat,  surrounded  by  de- 
pendents called  ministeriales.  Subject  to  a 
steward  (Yogt). 

d.  The  Abbey  of  Nuns   (Fraumiinster),  founded  853, 

on  left  bank  of  the  Limmat,  with  its  dependents. 
Subject  to  a  steward  (Vogt). 

2.  The  city  gains  Reichsunmittelbarkeit  and  a  more  liberal 

constitution. 
a.  The   four    settlements   united    under    an    imperial 

bailiff    (Reichsvogt),    first    hereditary    and    then 

(after  Frederick  II,  1218)  elective  by  the  citizens 

from  the  burgher  aristocracy. 
h.  Rights  of  the  abbess. 

1)  Appointed    a    Schultheiss,    a    sort    of   police 

judge. 

2)  Council  or  Rath  of  advisers  chosen  from  the 

aristocracy. 

3)  Large  revenues.     Commercial   importance  of 

the  city, 
c.  Zurich  becomes  a  free  city  through  the  council 
mentioned,  superseding  the  powers  of  the  abbess 
and  the  Schultheiss  and  diminishing  those  of  the 
imperial  bailiff.  The  code  or  "Brief  of  Rights," 
1304. 

3.  The  "Brun  revolution"  of  1336. 

a.  The  existing  classes:  nobles,  free  burghers, 
artisans  and  laborers. 


SWITZERLAND.  55 

6.  The  council  of  36 ;  common  people  not  eligible  and 
without  vote. 

c.  The  uprising  under  Rudolf  Brun,   June  7,   1336 

(Oechsli,  119). 

d.  The  first  democratic  constitution  or  "sworn  brief" 

of  July  16,   1336    (Oeclisli,   121-27;   McCrackan, 
141-2;  Bluntschli,  I,  89). 

1)  The  Rath  or  council,  chosen  by  the  (1)  Kon- 

stafel;  (2)  the  13  craft  gilds. 

2)  The    Biirgermeister:     chosen    for    life    (first 

was  Brun).    Great  powers. 

3)  Sometimes  a  more  popular  assembly  called. 

e.  The  conspiracy  and  the  Mordnacht  of  February  23, 

1350  (Oechsli,  134-5). 
4.  The  Zurich  league.  May  1,  1351   (Bluntschli,  II,  7-12; 

Oechsli,  135-140). 
a.  General  provisions. 
6.  The  two  dangerous  clauses. 

III.  League  of  Glarus,   June  4,   1352    (Oechsli,   143-45;   Mc- 
Crackan,  147-150;  Bluntschli,  I,  97-105,  II,  12-16). 

1.  Early    history    and    institutions;    physical    geography. 

Relations  to  the  Abbess  of  Seckingen;  to  House  of 
Hapsburg   (after  Emperor  Rudolf).       ^^ 

2.  Provisions  of  the  league. 

a.  General  provisions. 

h.  Provisions  putting  Glarus  in  an  inferior  position. 

IV.  The  League  of  Zug,  June  27,  1352   (Oechsli,  145-46;  Mc- 
Crackan,  151-3;  Bluntschli,  I,  106-109,  II,  16-21). 

1.  Provisions ;  Glarus  not  a  party  to  the  league. 

2.  Attack  of  the  Hapsburgers  and  their  allies;  and  the 

so-called  "peace  of  Brandenburg,"  1352;  the  power  of 
Vogt  of  the  Duke  of  Austria  (Hapsburg)  restored. 

V.  The  League  of  Bern,  March  6,  1353  (Oechsli,  146-150;  Mc- 
Crackan,  154-61;  Bluntschli,  I,  110-121,  II,  21-26). 

1.  Location ;  old  Burgundian  land ;  a  military  stronghold ; 

a  free  imperial  city. 

2.  Early  history:    city  founded  1191,  given  the  same  con- 

situation  as  that  of  Freiburg  in  Breisgau:  a  Schult- 
heiss  and  a  Rath  of  12,  freely  chosen  each  year  by  the 
citizens. 


56  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

3.  The  "Goldene  Handveste"   of  1274:    provisions    (Mc- 

Orackan,  155). 

4.  The  new  constitution,  1294-5:    the  "sixteen'^  and  the 

"two   hundred,"    latter   chosen   by   former;    artisans 
now  eligible  to  the  sixteen;  gilds  prohibited. 

5.  Summary  of  events  to  1353. 

a.  General  aim  to  create  a  republic  of  communities 

in  the  Aar  valley. 
6.  Various  special  leagues  and  wars, 
c.  The  battle  of  Laupen,  June  21,  1339  (Oechsli,  127- 

133;  McCrackan,  158-160). 

6.  The  Bern  league;  modeled  on  that  of  Zurich  (Oechsli, 

146  ff). 

REFERENCES. 

Besides  the  references  above,  see  Vincent,  9-12;  Adams  and  Cun- 
ningham, 5;  Dandliker,  I,  474-683;  Bluntschli,  Staats-  und  Rechtsge- 
schichte  der  Stadt  und  Landschaft  Zurich. 

Section  XX.     Historical  Development  of  the  League   of 
Eight  Cantons,  1353-1480. 

I.  Military  and  Other  Significant  Events. 

1.  1364:     Zug    reconquered    from    Austria    by    Schwiz; 

priest^s  charter,  1370. 

2.  Invasion  of  the  Gugler  and  the  feud  with  Kiburg,  1375, 

1382  (McCrackan,  162-6). 

3.  The  battle  of  Sempach,  July  9,  1386   (Oechsli,  155-63; 

McCrackan,  167-176). 

a.  Causes:  union  with  the  Swabian  league;  hostili- 
ties begun  by  Lucerne  and  other  federal  states 

J).  Description;  the  Winkelried  legend. 

c.  Results :  the  ''evil  peace,"  1386-8. 

4.  The  battle  of  Nafels,  April  9,  1388   (Oechsli,  164-68; 

McCrackan,  177-183;  Dandliker,  I). 

a.  Causes:  hostile  action  of  Bern  against  Freiburg; 
of  the  other  confederates;  rebellion  of  Glarus 
against  Austria  and  its  adoption  of  a  constitu- 
tion. 

Z).  Description   (see  Oechsli). 

c.  Consequence:  seven  years'  peace;  the  "third  sworn 
brief  of  Zurich;  the  "Covenant  of  Sempach"; 
consolidation  of  the  Swiss  nation  at  the  end  of 


SWITZERLAND.  57 

two  centuries  of  war  with  Hapsburg  (McCrackan, 
181-3,  190). 

5.  The  liberation  of  Appenzell  and  St.  Gallen,  1377-1412 

(McCrackan,  193-201;  Oechsli,  171-75). 

a.  In  13th  and  14th  centuries,  St.  Gallen  a  free  city  of 
the  empire,  with  elective  magistrates,  an  imperial 
steward   (Vogt),  and  gilds  on  the  Zurich  plan. 

6.  1377,  the  Appenzell  league  (5  villages)  formed  and 
united  with  the  Swabian  league;  gained  a  Rath, 
a  Landesgemeinde,  and  an  Ammann. 

c.  1401,   St.   Gallen  and  Appenzell  make  a  7  years' 

alliance,  and  open  hostilities  with  Abbot  Kuns 
von  S  toff  el  n. 

d.  1403,  Appenzell  admitted  to  the  Landrecht  (limited 

citizenship)  of  Schwiz,  receiving  an  Ammann 
from  that  state.  Was  the  separate  alliance  un- 
constitutional?    (Oechsli,  171.) 

e.  The  battle  of  Vbgelinsegg  (Speicher)  May  15,  1403 

(Oechsli,  172-74). 

f.  The  battle  of  Stoss,  June  17,  1405  (Oechsli,  174-75; 

McCrackan,  196-200). 

g.  ^'League  above  the  lake"  formed  under  leadership 

of  Appenzell. 

h.  Defeat  of  Appenzell  at  battle  of  Bregenz,  January 
13,  1408   (Oechsli,  176-7;  McCrackan,  201). 

i,  Appenzell  enters  a  subordinate  alliance  with  the 
Swiss  Federation  (except  Bern),  November  24, 
1411  (Oechsli,  177-179). 

/.  St.  Gallen  admitted  to  a  similar  subordinate  posi- 
tion, 1412. 

6.  Liberation  of  Valais,  1375-1419  (Oechsli,  182)  :   Valais 

enters  into  perpetual  citizenship  with  Uri,  Lucerne, 
and  Unterwalden,  1403,  1416;  war  with  Bern,  1419. 

7.  Liberation  of  Graubiinden    (the  Grisons),   1367-1436; 

relations  with  the  Swiss  Confederation?  The  three 
leagues  ? 

8.  Conquest  and  subjection  of  Ticino  (Val  Leventina)  by 

Uri  and  Obwalden  (part  of  Unterwalden),  1403,  1440 
(from  the  Duke  of  Milan)  ;  the  first  conquered  terri- 
tory of  the  Confederation. 


58  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

9.  Conquest  of  Aargau,  1415   (Oechsli,  179). 

a.  Sanctioned  by  the  Council  of  Constance  (1414-18) 
and  by  the  Emperor  Sigsmund:  The  Church 
Schism?  Pope  John  XXIII  and  Duke  Frederick 
of  Austria? 

6.  How  the  land  of  Aargau  was  divided  among  the 
victors?  The  problem  of  joint  control  of  sub- 
ject territory  ? 

10.  The  first  civil  war,  1442-4:  Zurich  in  league   (1442) 

with    Austria    against    the    other    Confederates 

(Oechsli,  187-209). 
a.  Causes. 
6.  Various  military  events,  1443-4. 

c.  Battle  of  St.  Jacob  on  the  Birs,  August  26,  1444 

(McCrackan,  213-18;  Oechsli,  202-211). 

d.  The  award  of  1451. 

11.  The  war  with  Charles  the  Bold,  1474-77  (Oechsli,  230- 

53 ;  McCrackan,  219-31 ;  Kirk,  Charles  the  Bold, 
III). 

a.  Causes  (Freeman,  Essays,  I). 

J).  Events:  Grandson,  1476;  Morat  (Murton),  1476; 
Nancy,  1477. 

c.  1460:  Thurgau  conquered  and  conjointly  adminis- 
tered. 

II.  Development   of  the   Constitution   of   the   Confederation, 
1353-1480. 

1.  Progress  of  alliances  (McCrackan,  184-90,  219). 

a.  Glarus  gains  equal  state's  rights,   1450. 

1).  St.  Gallen   (abbey  and  town)    admitted  to  closer 

relations,  1451,  1454  (Oechsli,  211-14). 
c.  Appenzell  admitted  to  like  relations,  1452. 

2.  Great  constitutional  documents. 

a.  The  priest's  charter  or  Pfaffenbrief,  October  7, 
1370  (Bluntschli,  I,  122-6;  McCrackan,  104- 
65,  186-7;  Vincent,  16;  Oechsli,  152-55). 

1)  Seizure  of  Peter  Gundoldingen,  Schultheiss  of 

Lucerne,    by    Bruno    Brun,    provost   of   the 
Grossmiinster. 

2)  The    "second    sworn    brief"    or    democratic 

amendment  to  the  constitution   of  Zurich; 


SWITZERLAND.  59 

followed  by  an  addition  to  the  federal  con- 
stitution. 
3)   The  priest's  charter:    provisions    (agreed  to 
by   the   confederates,   except   Bern   and 
Glarus) . 
a)   Principle   of   the   majority   vote   in   con- 
stitutional amendments  introduced. 
6)   The    term    "Eidgenossenschaft"    (confed- 
eration)    first    appears    in    a    constitu- 
tional document. 
J).  The  convention  of  Sempach,  July  10,  1393  (Oechsli, 
168-171;    Bluntschli,    I,    126-9;    McCrackan, 
181,    188;    Adams    and    Cunningham,    5-7; 
Vincent,  13). 

1)  Origin  (see  above). 

2)  Provisions:    rights    of    belligerents    and    of 

citizens  in  time  of  war. 
c.  The  covenant  of  Stanz,  1481  (see  next  syllabus). 

REFERENCES. 

In    general,    consult   Dandliker,    I,    546-635,    II,    11-249,   and   many 
documents  in  Oechsli,  Quellenl)uch,  neue  Folge   (1893). 


Section  XXI.     The  Third  Phase  of  Federal  History:   The 
League  op  Thirteen  Cantons,  1481-1798. 

I.  Effects  of  the  Burgundian  War  and  of  Sectional  Jealousies. 

1.  Threatened  disruption  of  the  league. 

2.  The    Diet   of    Stanz;    and   the    "covenant    of    Stanz," 

December  22,  1481   (McOrackan,  232-35;  Oechsli, 

260-67). 
a.  General  provisions. 
6.  Dangerous  clause  forbidding  public  meetings. 

3.  Freiburg  and  Solothurn  admitted  to  the  league,  1481. 

II.  War  with  the  Empire  (the  "Swabian  war"),  1499:  Switz- 
erland Gains  Practical  Independence  of  the  Empire  and  this 
Independence  Formally  Ratified  in  1648. 

III.  1501:  Basel  and  Schaffhausen  Admitted  as  the  Eleventh 
and  Twelfth  States  in  the  League. 

IV.  Switzerland  Gains  the  Balance  of  Power  in  Europe. 
1.  The  Swiss  as  mercenaries. 


60  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

2.  The  Italian  war   (war  of  the  Holy  league)  :    Novara, 

1513;  Marignano  (Melegnano),  1515. 

3.  Appenzell  admitted  to  the  league,  1513. 

V.  The  Constitution  of  the  League  of  Thirteen  as  it  Existed 
before  the  Long  Period  of  Strife  and  Decay  (McCrackan, 
243-247;  Adams  and  Cunningham,  10  ff.;  Moses,  23-29; 
Bluntschli,  I,  391-447). 

1.  The  elements  of  a  nation  with  a  compact  territory. 

a.  Practical  independence. 

6.  Perpetual  peace  with  the  Dukes  of  Austria. 

2.  The  territorial  division  (Bluntschli,  I,  185  ff.). 

a.  The  13  states  or  privileged  members. 
&.  The  allies  or  Zugewandte  Orte :   each  bound  to  one 
or  more  of  the  thirteen. 

1)  St.   Gallen,   the  abbey;   and   St.   Gallen,   the 

town  (aristocratic  republic). 

2)  Bishoprick  of  Basel  (under  a  Prince-Bishop). 

3)  Principality    of    Neuch^tel     (subordinate  to 

Prussia,  under  a  count). 

4)  Bienne   (Biel)  :  allied  with  Bern,  1352. 

5)  Miihlhausen  in  Elsass:    aristocratic  republic. 

6)  Rotweil  in  Swabia, 

7)  The  democratic  republic  of  Valais. 

8)  The  democratic  republic  of  Graubiinden. 

9)  The   republic   of   Gersau    on   Lake   Lucerne, 

eventually  incorporated  with  Schwiz. 
Note. — Geneva  and  Vaud  not  yet  in  direct  re- 
lation with  the  league, 
c.  The  subject  or  protected   lands,   the  Untertanen- 
lande:  administered  by  the  states  in  various 
combinations. 

1)  Aargau:   administered  conjointly  by  8  states. 

2)  Thurgau:      administered     conjointly     by     10 

states. 

3)  Rheinthal. 

4)  Sargans. 

5)  Gaster. 

6)  Utznach. 

7)  Morat. 

8)  Grandson. 

9)  Orbe. 


SWITZERLAND.  61 

10)  Echallens. 

11)  Bellinzona. 

12)  Lugano. 

13)  Locarno. 

14)  Mendrisio. 

15)  Val  Maggia. 

16)  Abbey  of  Engelberg  (Unterwalden). 

17)  Wilchingen  (Schaffhausen). 

18)  Entlebuch  (under  Lucerne). 

19)  Toggenburg  (under  Prince- Abbot  of  St.  Gal- 

len). 

20)  Val  Tellina  (Ger.  Veltlin). 

3.  Slow  development   of  the  Diets   or   Tagsatzugen   and 

their  functions  (Moses  23  ff.;  Adams  and  Cun- 
ningham, 121). 

a.  Composed  of  instructed  delegates  (germ  of  federal 
referendum). 

ft.  Unanimous  vote  for  laws  required. 

c.  No  power  to  execute  laws. 

4.  Common  bailiwicks  (e.  g.  Aargau  and  Thurgau)  ;  and 

the  provisions  regarding  civil  and  foreign  war  con- 
cluded with  Basel,  Schaffhausen,  and  Appenzell. 

5.  Other  elements  of  national  administeration. 

6.  Comparison  with  growth  of  the  13  American  colonies 

(McCrackan,  246-7). 

VI.  The  Keformation  and  the  Religious  Wars  and  Their  Re- 
sults  (ca.  1500-1750). 

1.  The  influence  of  Zwingli  (McCrackan,  251-63). 

w.  As  a  political  reformer;  his  democratic  principles. 

6.  As  a  religious  reformer. 

c.  His  influence  on  Zurich  (1519-23). 

2.  The  reformation  in  St.  Gallen  under  Watt  (Vadianus), 

Basel,  Bern  (under  Haller)  ;  in  Thurgau,  Glarus,  and 
Graubtinden. 

3.  War  between  the  five  Catholic  cantons   (Uri,  Schwiz, 

Unterwalden,  Lucerne,  Zug),  against  the  Protestants 
led  by  Zurich  and  Bern.  Battle  of  Kappel,  1531: 
death  of  Zwingli,  who  was  superseded  by  Bullinger. 

4.  Calvin  at  Geneva  (1536-1564). 

a.  Alliance  of  Geneva  with  Freiburg  and  Bern,  1519, 
1526. 


62  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

6.  Farel  at  Geneva,  1532-35;  independence  of  Geneva 
from  Savoy,  1533-1535,  througli  the  aid  of  Bern. 

c.  Calvin;  his  ^^ Institutes'^  (Basel,  1536)  ;  his  code 
and  constitution  adopted,  1541. 

5.  Vand  conquered  from  Savoy  by  Bern,  1536. 

6.  Appenzell     divided,     1597:      Inner- Rhodes,     Catholic; 

Outer-Rhodes,  Protestant. 

7.  General  results. 

a.  National  decay;  Swiss  independence  by  treaty  of 

Westphalia,  1648. 
6.  Development  of  aristocratic  tendencies. 

8.  The  eighteenth  century  renaissance. 

a.  The  revival  of  learning   (McCrackan,  289-94)  ;  in- 
fluence of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau. 
6.  The  Helvetic  revolution,  1798. 

1)  Causes:   policy  of  Napoleon. 

2)  Results:    overthrow  of  the  league  of  thirteen. 

Section  XXII.  The  Swiss  Federation  From  the  Helvetic 
Revolution  to  1848:  The  Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Sixth 
Phases. 

I.  The  Helvetic  Republic,  1798-1803  (McCrackan,  301-312; 
Adams  and  Cunningham,  13-14;  Moses,  28-36;  Bluntschli,  I, 
448-59 ;  Oechsli,  545-640) . 

1.  Character  of  the  revolution. 

a.  Napoleon's  policy. 

6.  Seizure  of  the  Val  Tellina  (1797)  ;  and  occupation 
of  Vaud,  which  declared  independence. 

c.  Leaders  of  the  Swiss  in  alliance  with  the  French: 

Peter  Ochs  of  Basel  and  F.  C.  La  Harpe  of  Vaud. 

d.  Defeat  of  the  Bernese  at  Grauholz,  1798. 

e.  Treachery  of  the  French:    looting  of  the  cantonal 

treasuries;    enormous    taxes    imposed    (Oechsli, 
581). 

2.  The  constitution,  April  12,  1798:    first  draft  by  Ochs; 

modeled  on  that  of  France  (text  in  Oechsli,  583- 
595;  see  Moses,  28-36;  Bluntschli,  II,  305-22; 
Blumer,  Handhuch,  I,  19-29.) 
a.  General  principles:  popular  sovereignty;  repre- 
sentative democracy ;  free  press ;  religious  liberty ; 
no  hereditary  powers;  feudalism  abolished. 


SWITZERLAND.  63 

6.  Legislature:  senate  consisting  of  4  delegates  from 
each  canton  with  the  ex-directors;  grand  council 
chosen  according  to  population;  at  first  8  from 
each  canton. 

c.  Executive :   directory  of  five  chosen  by  legislature ; 

aided     by     four    ministers     appointed     by     the 
directors. 

d.  Supreme  court  composed  of  one  judge  from  each 

canton;  cantonal  courts;  district  courts. 

e.  Cantonal    government:    appointive    prefect,    etc.; 

districts ;  communes. 

f.  Liberal  provisions;  subject  lands  abolished. 

g.  The  cantons  rearranged. 

3.  Ordinances:    Swiss  colors;  uniforms,  etc. 

4.  Resistance  of  the  forest  cantons  under  Alois  Reding; 

resistance  of  Nidwalden,  in  battle  of  Stanz;  work  of 
Pestalozzi. 

5.  Legislation;  the  alliance  of  August  19,  1799. 

6.  War  and  anarchy,  1800-1803. 

a.  The  parties  of  centralizers  and  federalists:    con- 
stitution practically  ceased  to  be  in  force  from 
beginning  of  1800. 
J).  Struggle  between  France  and  Austria  in  alliance 
with  Russia  on  Swiss  ground ;  valor  of  Suvaroff ; 
generalship  of  Lecourbe?   of  Massena? 
II.  The  Act  of  Mediation,  February  19,  1803  (tQ^t  in  Oechsli, 
642-3;   see  also   McCrackan,  319   ff.;    Moses,   36-46;   Blunt- 
schli,  I,  460-78,  II,  22-35). 

1.  How  and  by  whom  was  the  constitution  adopted. 

2.  Nineteen  cantons  embraced  in  the  confederation;  the 

constitutions  of  these  were  revised  by  the  act. 

3.  Provisions  of  the  constitution. 

a.  Liberal  principles. 

&.  The  6  Yororte,  each  providing  the  Landammann 

or  head  of  the  confederacy  in  rotation, 
c.  Provisions  as  to  governmental  departments. 

4.  Switzerland  virtually  under  French  protectorate  until 

defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Leipzig,  1813;  then  the  Swiss 
Diet  set  aside  the  Act  of  Mediation ;  but  the  six  new 
cantons  were  retained  (Oechsli,  649-65). 


64  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

5.  Period  of  party  strife  and  negotiations,  1813-15;  con- 
ditions of  "perpetual  neutrality^'  proposed  by  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  1815,  and  accepted  by  the  Swiss 
(Oechsli,  653;  Bluntschli,  II,  371-76). 

III.  The  "Federal  Pact"  or  Bundesvertrag,  August  7,  1815 
(Oechsli,  656-58;  Bluntschli,  I,  460-78,  II,  358-68;  Mc- 
Crackan,  320-37;  Moses,  46-55;  Vincent,  24-29;  Adams  and 
Cunningham,  15-16). 

1.  How  adopted ;  applied  to  22  cantons. 

2.  Principle  of  state's  rights  accented;  a  mere  Staaten- 

tund. 

3.  Other  general  principles:   territories  and  constitutions 

of  the  several  cantons  guaranteed;  federal  army; 
arbitration  of  interstate  disputes;  alliances  between 
cantons  not  positively  prohibited;  no  central  ex- 
ecutive; but  between  sessions  of  the  Diet  the  B'urger- 
meister  of  Bern,  Zurich,  and  Lucerne,  in  turn,  ad- 
ministered the  government  for  two  years  each. 

4.  General  constitutional  provisions. 

5.  History  of  the  pact,  1815-1848. 

a.  Democratic    reforms    in    the   state    constitutions, 

1830. 
6.  December  27,  1830,  policy  of  non-interference  as  to 

cantonal  constitutions  adopted  by  the  Diet. 

c.  Hence,    in    1832,    the    Siehnerconcordat    or    first 

Sonderbund  of  seven  cantons  formed  by  the 
liberal  party  favoring  stronger  government  in 
the  separate  cantons. 

d.  The   Sonderbund   or  League  of   Sarnen    (Sarnen- 

bund)  formed  by  conservatives  of  five  cantons 
(1832-3)  ;  the  members  of  this  league  withdrew 
from  the  federal  Diet;  but  the  league  was  dis- 
solved by  force,  1833. 

e.  Attempt  to  revise  the  constitution,   1833;  events 

leading  to  the  war  of  the  Sonderbund,  1839-45. 

f.  1843-7:    dissolution  of  the  union:    a   Sonderbund 

of  the  Catholic  cantons  formed  1843-5;  and  the 
act  of  secession,  December,  1845;  but  the  rebel 
league  was  overthrown  in  the  civil  war  which 
followed  (1847).  Analogies  between  the  Swiss 
and  the  American  civil  wars. 


SWITZERLAND.  65 

g.  A  commission  formed  a  new  constitution,  Febru- 
ary, 1848.  This  constitution  was  amended  in 
1865  and  in  1874,  bringing  it  to  its  present  form. 

REFERENCES. 

On  the  period,  1815-48,  see  Bluntschli,  I,  479-512.  Important  sources 
are:  AmvtlicTie  Sammlung  der  Akten  aus  der  Zeit  der  Helvetischen 
Republick  (ed.  by  J.  Strickler,  2  vols.);  TageMatt  der  Oesetze  und 
Dekrete  der  Gesetzgehenden  Rathe  der  Helvetischen  Repudlik  (6  vols., 
1800) ;  Der  Schweizerische  Repul)likaner  (ed.  by  Escher  and  Usteri, 
3  vols.,  1798-9).  See  also  Marsouche  (L.),  La  Confederation  Helvetique 
(1890);  Tillier  (A.  von),  Geschichte  der  Helvetischen  Republik  (3 
vols.,  1843);  idem,  Geschichte  der  Eidgenossenschaft  wdhrend  der 
Herrschaft  der  Vermittlungsakte  (2  vols.,  1845-6;  idem,  Restaurations- 
epoche  (3  vols.,  1848-50);  idem,  Zeit  des  sogeheissen  Fortschritts,  1830- 
18Jf8  (3  vols.,  1854-55);  Hilty  (C),  La  Neutrality  de  la  Suisse  (trans, 
by  Mentha,  1889);  Van  Muyden  (B.),  La  Suisse  sous  le  Facte  de  1815 
(1890);  Zschokke  (H.),  Denkwiirdigkeiten  der  Helvetischen  Staatsum- 
wdlzung  (3  vols.,  1803-5);  Dufour  (G.  H.),  Der  Sondertundskrieg 
(1882);  De  Peyster  (J.  W.),  Secession  in  Switzerland  and  in  the 
United  States  Compared  (1863);  Esseiva  (P.),  Fribourg  et  le  Sonder- 
lund  (1881.) 


Section   XXIII.     General   Character   of   the    Swiss    Con- 
stitution. 

I.  In  Some  Important  Parts  Modeled  on  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States;  Influence  of  Bluntschli  and  Rllttimann. 

II.  Plan  and  Scope  of  the  Constitutional  Instrument. 

1.  The  preamble. 

a.  God  in  the  constitution. 
6.  General  purpose. 

2.  Chapter     I.      "General     Provisions" :     comprises     70 

"articles,"  or  over  one-half  of  the  document. 

a.  Sovereignty   of   cantons   and   confederation;   pur- 
pose of  confederation. 

1).  Powers  granted  or  denied  to  the  confederation. 

c.  Powers  reserved  or  denied  to  the  cantons. 

d.  Provisions  constituting  in  effect  a  "bill  of  rights." 

3.  Chapter  II.    "Federal  Authorities":  comprises  articles 

71  to  117  inclusive. 
a.  Federal     assembly      (Bundesversammlung) ;      its 
powers  (art.  84-94). 

1)  The  national  council  (Nationalrath)  :  a  rep- 
resentative body  similar  to  the  U.  S.  house 
of  representatives  (art.  72-79). 


G6  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

2)  The  council  of  states  (Standerath)  :  a  senate 
consisting  of  44  members,  two  appointed  by 
each  canton  (art.  80-83). 
h.  Federal  council  (Bundesrath)  :  being  the  federal 
executive,  consisting  of  seven  members 
chosen  every  three  years  by  the  two  houses 
of  the  federal  assembly  in  joint  session  (art. 
95-104);    from   these   are   chosen: 

.1)   President  of  the  confederation. 

2)   Vice-president  of  the  federal  council. 

c.  Federal  chancery  (Bundeskanzlei)  :  at  the  head  is 

the  "chancellor  of  the  confederation,"  chosen  for 
three  years  by  the  federal  assembly;   is  under 
direction  of  the  federal  council;  and  is  in  effect  i 
the  general  secretary  of  state  (art.  105). 

d.  Federal   court    (Bundesgericht)  :   to  be  organized 

under  a  federal  statute  (art.  106-114). 

e.  Miscellaneous  provisions   (art.  115-117). 

4.  Chapter  III.     Amendments  of  the  federal  constitution 

(art.  118-123). 
a.  Complete  amendments. 
h.  Partial  amendments. 

5.  Temporary  provisions. 

III.  Preliminary  Comparison  of  the  Swiss  and  the  U.  S.  Con- 
stitutions. 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Text  of  the  Constitution:  McCrackan,  373-403;  Vincent,  State 
and  Federal  Government  in  Switzerland,  194-222;  idem,  Government 
in  Switzerland,  40  ff.,  175  ff.;  Lowell,  Governments  and  Parties,  II, 
405-431;  Winchester,  44-52;  Old  South  Leaflets,  General  Series,  No.  18; 
Hart,  Federal  Government,  87-174  (the  text  analyzed  in  comparison 
■with  three  other  federal  constitutions) ;  Publications  of  University 
of  Pa.,  Political  Economy  and  Pullic  Law  Series,  No.  8  (1890);  Dar- 
este,  Constitutions  Modernes,  I,  441-68.  See  also  bibliographies  of  the 
texts  in  Hart,  64-65,  notes,  185-187. 

2.  Discussion:  McCrackan,  346-353;  Winchester,  42-4,  52-64;  Moses, 
56  ff.,  30  ff.,  38  ff.;  Adams  and  Cunningham,  25  ff.;  Borgeaud,  Adoption 
and  Amendment  of  Constitutions,  273  ff.,  291  ff.,  300  ff.;  Lowell,  Gov- 
ernments and  Parties,  II,  180-82,  184  ff.;  Demombynes,  Constitutions 
Europ^ennes,  II,  304  ff.;  Woolsey,  Political  Science,  II,  208-23;  Free- 
man, in  Fortnightly  Review,  II,  533-48  (Oct.,  1865) ;  idem,  Hist.  Essays 
(o*n  Presidency) ;  Vincent,  in  Am.  Hist.  Association,  Papers,  III, 
160-63. 


SWITZERLAND.  67 

Section  XXIV.     The  Federal  Assembly   (Bundesversamm- 
lung)  or  Congress  (art.  71-94,  passim). 

A.     The  National  Council  (Nationalrath)  or  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives  (art.  72-9). 

I.  Composition :    147  members  at  present ;  one  for  each  20,000 
of  population  or  fraction  thereof  upwards  of  10,000. 

1.  Each  canton  or  half-canton  has  at  least  One  representa- 

tive. 

2.  Eligible:  every  Swiss  of  20  who  has  the  right  to  vote, 

except  the  clergy,  the  restriction  being  aimed  at  the 
Catholics. 

3.  Not  eligible:    members  of  council  of  state  and  federal 

council  and  oflScials  appointed  by  the  latter. 

II.  Elections. 

1.  Members  chosen  every  three  years  by  direct  vote ;  abso- 

lute majority  required  for  first  two  trials. 

2.  Electoral   districts;   not  to  be  composed   of  parts  of 

different  cantons.  There  are  (laws  of  1890)  52  dis- 
tricts with  1  to  6  members  each.  Question  of  a 
Gerrymander? 

3.  Who  may  vote:   any  Swiss  of  20  who  may  vote  in  his 

canton. 

4.  Exercise  of  the  franchise  may  be  regulated  by  federal 

law. 

III.  Organization. 

1.  Chooses  a  president  and  a  vice-president  for  each  ses- 

sion. 

2.  The  same  person  ineligible  to  these  offices  for  two  con- 

secutive regular  sessions. 

3.  These  officers  have  casting  vote;   and  they  may  vote 

as  other  members  in  elections. 

4.  Compensation :   four  dollars  a  day  and  5  cents  mileage. 

IV.  Two  Short  Sessions  Each  Year  (June  and  December). 

1.  The  debates :  no  stenographic  reports. 

2.  Languages  used. 

3.  Joint  sessions:   for  what  purposes? 

REFERENCES. 

See  Adams  and  Cunningham,  38-43;  Lowell,  II,  211-214;  Vincent, 
State  and  Fed.  Govt.,  38-9;  idem,  Govt,  in  Switz.,  175  ff.;  Moses,  chap, 
iv;  Winchester,  65-69;   Demombynes,  II,  320. 


68  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

B.     The    Council   of    States    (Stdnderath)    or    Senate    (art. 

80-83). 

I.  Composition:    44  members,  2  from  each  canton,  each  half- 
canton  sending  one. 

II.  Functions. 

1.  No  special  powers;  those  of  the  two  houses  are  co- 

ordinate. 

2.  Why  the  council's  influence  has  relatively  decreased? 

Compare  with  U.  S.  senate. 

III.  Control  of  the  Cantons. 

1.  Salary. 

2.  Tenure:   in  practice  varies  from  1  to  4  years. 

3.  Election:    in  practice,  by  the  cantonal  legislature  or 

by  popular  vote;  latter  method  growing  in  favor. 

REFERENCES. 

See  Lowell,  II,  208-11;  Adams  and  Cunningham,  43  ff.;  Vincent, 
State  and  Fed.  Govt.,  39-40;  idem,  Govt,  in  Switz.,  175  ff.,  Winchester, 
69;  Moses,  chap,  iv;   Demombynes,  II,  318. 

C.     Powers  of  the  Federal  Assemhly  (art.  84-94,  passim), 

I.  In  General  Nearly  Commensurate  with  those  of  the  Con- 
federation. 

II.  Legislative  Powers   (Lowell,  II,  184-91;  Moses,  chap.  iv). 

1.  Ordinary. 

2.  Extraordinary;   what  powers  not  exercised  by  U.   S. 

congress  (Lowell,  II,  187). 

3.  Restriction  on  power  of  taxation. 

4.  Legislative  powers  increasing;  how  and  why? 

III.  Administrative  Powers. 

1.  Measures  carried  out  by  the  cantons? 

2.  Union  of  legislative  centralization  with  administrative 

decentralization. 

3.  Direct  administration. 

IV.  Elections:   What  Bodies  Chosen  in  Joint  Session? 

V.  Supervising  Powers  (Lowell,  II,  186-7). 

D.     Procedure  in  Legislation. 

Vincent,  State  and  Fed.  Govt.,  41-5;  Adams  and  Cunningham,  45- 
53;  Demombynes,  II,  324  ff. 


SWITZERLAND.  69 

Section  XXV.     The  Federal  Council  (art.  95-104). 

I.  Composed  of  Seven  Members  Chosen  for  Three  Years  by  the 
Federal  Assembly:  The  Executive  Department  (called 
Cabinet) . 

1.  Who  are  eligible?     Who  not  eligible? 

2.  Vacancies,  how  and  when  filled? 

3.  Quorum:   4  members. 

4.  Virtually    permanent    in    tenure    (Lowell,    II,    203)  ; 

limited  range  of  candidates;  what  cantons  favored. 

II.  OflScers. 

1.  President  of  the  confederation. 

a.  Chosen  for  one  year;  not  at  once  reeligible;  has  a 

salary  from  federal  treasury. 
&.  Duties. 

1)  As  head  of  one  of  the  7  departments. 

2)  Ceremonial  functions  as  chairman. 

3)  Supervisory. 

2.  Vice-president  of  the  federal   council;   salary;   term; 

reeligibility?     By  custom,  always  chosen  president. 

III.  Distribution  of  Administrative  Duties  (law  of  1887)  ; 
division  for  convenience,  but  in  theory  joint  action  is  re- 
quired. 

1.  Foreign  affairs. 

2.  Justice  and  police. 

3.  Interior. 

4.  War. 

5.  Finance. 

6.  Industry  and  agriculture. 

7.  Post-office  and  railroads. 

IV.  Constitutional  Functions. 

1.  Judicial:   in  administrative  questions  (art.  85,  sec.  12; 

102,  sec.  2;  113). 
a.  Relation   of  its  judicial   powers  to   those  of  the 

federal  tribunal  ? 
6.  Decisions    sometimes    arbitrary    for    political    or 

other   reasons    (see   Nation^    October    15,    1891; 

Lowell,  II,  196;  Winchester,  91). 
c.  Checks  upon  oppressive  action. 

2.  General  executive  and  administrative  functions. 


70  FEDERAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

a.  Kelations  with  the  cantonal  authorities;  methods 

of  compelling  obedience  of  cantons   (Lowell,  II, 

197;  Winchester,  90-1;  Adams  and  Cunningham, 

69-71). 

t.  Relations    with    the    federal    assembly:     in    what 

sense  a  cabinet? 

\/L)  No  veto  nor  independent  sphere  of  action ;  can 

be  controlled  by  assembly. 
ix2f)   The  report  at  each  session. 

3)  Right  to   speak   and   make   motions   in   each 
•^      house;  and  to  initiate  measures  (bills). 

4)  As  a  rule,  all  bills  in  final  form  come  from 

the  council;  what  is  the  Postulat?  (See 
Adams  and  Cunningham,  489;  Lowell,  II, 
198-9.) 

5)  Effect   of  reversal   of  its   policy   by   the   as- 

sembly?    Resignation? 

a)   Have  no  parliamentary  responsibility. 

6)   Non-partisan;     members    from     opposite 

parties;    virtually    an     arbiter   between 

parties. 

c)  Need  not  agree  in  policy. 

d)  Does  not  control  policy  of  the  state,  that 

belonging  to  national   assembly. 

6)  Enumeration  of  constitutional  duties. 

V.  Real  Importance  of  the  Council;  Advantages  of  the  Swiss 
System  (Lowell,  II,  205-208). 

REFERENCES. 

Consult  Lowell,  II,  193-208;  Winchester,  104-23;  Adams  and  Cun- 
ningham, 54-65,  Moses,  121-39;  Vincent,  State  and  Fed.  Govt,  52-57; 
idem,  Fed.  Govt.,  210-19;   DemomTyynes,  II,  337  ff. 


Section  XXVI.     The  Federal  Chancery  (Kanzlei)  and  the 
Federal  TIiibunal  (Bundesgericht.     See  art.  105-114). 

A.     The  Chancery  (art.  105). 

I.  Composition. 

1.  At  the   head   is   the   chancellor   of  the   confederation 

chosen  for  3  years  by  federal  assembly. 

2.  Subordinates  (provided  by  law). 


SWITZERLAND.  71 

II.  Duties. 

1.  In  the  assembly. 

2.  Other  duties  as  general  secretary,  etc. 

B.     The  Federal  Tribunal 

I.  Composition. 

1.  Members  and  alternates  chosen  by  the  assembly,  the 

three  languages  being  represented. 

2.  There  must  be  a  jury  for  criminal  cases  (art.  106,  112). 

3.  The  term  (6  years),  number  of  judges  (14),  salary,  and 

number  of  sections  of  the  court  determined  by  federal 
law. 

4.  Who  eligible;  who  not  eligible. 

5.  Held  at  Lausanne  in  Vaud. 

II.  Jurisdiction. 

1.  In  private  law. 

a.  Civil  suits;  between  confederation  and  cantons; 
between  cantons;  between  persons  and  confedera- 
tion; between  canton  and  persons,  if  either  peti- 
tions; other  cases  on  request. 

h.  Criminal  cases. 

1)  Crimes  and  political  offenses. 

2)  Minor  offenses. 

2.  In  public  law. 

a.  Between  cantons  and  the  confederation;  between 
cantons;  complaints  of  citizens  regarding  viola- 
tion of  constitutional  rights. 

6.  But  administrative  cases  reserved  to  federal  as- 
sembly and  federal  council. 

3.  The  tribunal  made  by  statute  virtually  a  court  of  ap- 

peal. 

III.  Comparison  with  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  (Lowell,  II,  218- 
20). 

REFERENCES.      ' 

Lowell,  II,  214-220;  Wincliester ;  Adams  and  Cunningham',  66-75; 
Vincent,  State  and  Federal  Govt.,  58-61;  idem,  Federal  Government; 
Moses,  140-63;    Demombynes,  II,  343  ff. 


72  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 


Section    XXVII.     Amendments   to    the    Constitution    and 
Miscellaneous  Provisions. 

A.    Amendments. 
I.  Complete  Amendment. 

1.  Secured  through  the  forms  required  for  passing  federal 

laws. 

2.  Procedure  when  the  houses  do  not  agree;  and  when 

50,000  citizens  demand. 
d.  In    either    case,    the   question    whether    complete 
amendment    shall    take    place   is   decided   by   a 
majority  of  the  Swiss  citizens  voting  thereon. 

5.  If  the  vote  is  in  the  affirmative,  a  new  assembly  is 

chosen;   and   this   prepares  the  amendment   for 
submission. 

XL  Partial  Amendment  (allowed  since  1891). 

1.  Secured    through   the   forms   required    for   passing   a 

federal  law. 

2.  Secured  by  initiative  through  a  petition  of  50,000  Swiss 

voters. 
a.  When  presented  in  form  of  general  suggestions. 

1)  Procedure  when  the  assembly  does  not  agree 

to  the  petition. 

2)  Procedure  when  the  assembly  agrees  to  the 

petition. 

6.  When  presented  in  form  of  a  finished  bill. 

1)  Procedure  when  the  assembly  does  not  agree 

to  the  petition. 

2)  Procedure  when  the  assembly  does  agree. 

III.  The  Amended  Constitution,  Complete  or  Partial,  Has 
Force  When  Approved  by  a  Majority  of  the  Swiss  Citizens 
Voting  Thereon,  and  by  a  Majority  of  the  States. 

IV.  Comparison  of  Swiss  and  U.  S.  Constitutions  with  Respect 
to  the  Procedure  and  the  Facility  of  Amendment. 

REFERENCES. 
Vincent,  State  and  Federal   Government,  49-50;    Adams  and  Cun- 
ningham, 262;  Lowell,  II,  190. 


SWITZERLAND.  73 

B.    Miscellaneous  Provisions  and  Questions. 

I.  Foreign  Affairs  (Vincent,  State  and  Federal  Govt.,  50-1, 
67-69;  Moses,  164-188). 

1.  Powers  reserved  to  the  confederation   (art.  8)  :    war, 

peace,  alliance,  treaties. 

2.  Powers  by  exception  reserved  to  the  cantons   (art.  9, 

103). 

a.  Treaties  with  foreign  powers  regarding  administra- 
tion of  public  property,  border  and  police  inter- 
course, if  not  contrary  to  the  confederation  or 
rights  of  the  cantons. 

&.  But  the  official  intercourse  between  cantons  and 
such  foreign  governments  shall  be  through  the 
federal  council;  except  correspondence  with  "in- 
ferior officials  and  officers  of  a  foreign  state,"  as 
to  matters  above  named. 

3.  Pensions,   titles,   gifts,   salaries,   or  decorations   from 

foreign  governments  prohibited;  except  continuance 
of  pensions  to  "inferior  officials"  (art.  12). 

4.  Political    alliances   or    treaties   between    cantons    for- 

bidden; but  "conventions"  (concordats)  on  legis- 
lative, administrative,  and  judicial  subjects  allowed; 
how  these  carried  out?  (Art.  7.  See  Adams  and  Cun- 
ningham, 256-259;  Vincent,  State  and  Federal  Govt., 
50-1.  j 

5.  International  neutrality  guaranteed,  1815. 

a.  No  "military  capitulations"  (art.  11)  :  i.  e.,  no 
employment  of  Swiss  as  mercenaries  by  state  or 
federal  contract. 

J).  No  foreign  titles,  etc.  (art.  12). 

c.  Maritime   neutral   rights   under   treaty   of   Paris, 

1856. 

d.  Seat   of  various   international   agreements    (Win- 

chester, 430  ff.). 

6.  Functions  of  the  council ;  how  controlled  by  the  federal 

assembly?  Management  of  the  "department"  of 
foreign  affairs? 

II.  The  Army  (art.  13-22;  Adams  and  Cunningham,  140-161; 
Vincent,  State  and  Federal  Govt.,  62-66;  Moses,  189  ff.; 
Winchester,  226  ff.). 


74  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

1.  Confederation    may    not    keep    up    a    standing    army 

(art.  13). 

2.  Standing  force  of  each  canton  or  half-canton,  without 

federal  permission,  restricted  to  300,  besides  mounted 
police  (art.  13). 

3.  Every  Swiss  bound  to  perform  military  service;  but 

certain  exemptions  (art.  18)  ;  cost  of  equipment? 
Pensions?    Exemption-tax? 

4.  Control   in   time   of   danger,    discipline,    organization, 

drill,  and  equipment  of  the  militia  belong  to  the 
federal  government;  military  laws  enforced  by  can- 
tonal officers,  under  federal  supervision. 

5.  Powers  and  privileges  in  hands  of  cantons  (art.  19,  20, 

21.     See  Adams  and  Cunningham,  145-7). 

6.  The  organization  of  the  citizen-army. 

a.  Active  force  or  Auszug:    men  from  20-32  years. 
6.  First  reserve  or  Landwehr :   men  from  32-44  years, 
c.  Landsturm  or  second  reserve :  all  others  from  17-50. 

7.  Characteristics  of  the  Swiss  military  system. 

III.  Federal  Finance  (Vincent,  State  and  Federal  Oov&rn- 
ment,  70-82;  idem,  Govt,  in  Switzerland,  336  ff. ;  Moses, 
194  ff.). 

IV.  Social  Activities  of  the  Confederation  (Vincent,  op.  cit., 
82-96 ;  idem,  Govt,  in  Switzerland,  256 ;  Adams  and  Cunning- 
ham, 33,  69,  25-37,  passim;  Moses,  247-9,  238-40,  226,  197; 
Dawson,  Social  Switzerland;  Dietler,  "The  Regulation  and 
Nationalization  of  the  Swiss  Railways,"  in  Annals,  XIII, 
143-72,  291-322). 

1.  Import  and  export  duties. 

2.  Industrial  regulations;  matches,  gold  and  silver  wares, 

etc. 
3.. Factory  and  employment  laws;  accidents. 

4.  Patents,  copyright,  life  insurance;  compulsory  invalid 

and  accident  insurance  (art.  34,  1890). 

5.  Federal  law  of  contracts  and  bankruptcy. 

6.  Gambling  houses  forbidden  by  constitution   (art.  35)  ; 

lotteries,  how  dealt  with? 

7.  Capital  punishment  forbidden;  state  laws  thereon? 

8.  Posts,   telegraphs,   telephone,   railways,   bridges,   high- 


SWITZERLAND.  75 

ways,  weights  and  measures,  coinage,  divorce  and 
marriage. 

9.  Education:    how   divided   between   federal   and   state 

governments?  (Vincent  op.  cit.,  90-2,  182  ff. ;  Adams 
and  Cunningham,  189-209;  Moses,  242;  Winchester, 
253  ft'.;  Dawson,  243  ff.). 

10.  Religion:    (Vincent  op,  cit.,  92-6,  173  ff.;  Adams  and 

Cunningham,  162-188;  Moses,  212  ff.). 
a.  Constitutional    safeguards    of    religious    freedom; 

treatment  of  Jesuits  and  monasteries. 
&.  Complexity  of  the  Swiss  sectarian  problem. 
.  The   Confederation   and   the   Individual    (Moses,   203    ff. ; 
Vincent,  op.  cit.,  97-101). 


Section  XXVIII.     State  and  Local  Government. 
A.     The  Government  of  the  Cantons. 

I.  The  State  Constitutions  and  the  Federal  Constitution. 

1.  Nature  of  state  sovereignty;  the  states  rights  feeling 

slowly  waning. 

2.  Federal  guaranty  of  the  cantonal  constitution:    must 

be  granted  on  what  conditions    (Lowell,   II,  220-1; 
Const.,  art.  6). 

3.  Freedom    of    "revision"    of   state    constitutions:     how 

often  in  practice;  effect  as  to  similarity? 

II.  In  Two  Cantons  (Uri  and  Glarus)  and  Four  Half-cantons 
(2  Appenzells  and  2  Unterwaldens),  Supreme  Power  is  in 
the  Landesgemeinde  or  Mass-meeting  (Lowell,  II,  221-26; 
Winchester,  148-64;  Vincent,  State  and  Fed.  Govt.;  Free- 
man, Growth  of  Eng.  Const.,  chap.  i). 

1.  Description  of  the  meeting;   the  procession;   office  of 

Landammann. 

2.  Extent  of  functions. 

a.  Business  usually  prepared  by  the  council. 
h.  On  proper  notice,  the  right  of  private  initiative  of 
measures  preserved. 

1)  In  all  cantons,  except  Glarus,  vote  must  be 

yes  or  no  without  amendment. 

2)  In    all    cantons,    except    Appenzell-Exterior, 

debate  is  allowed. 


76  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

4.  The  councils. 

a.  The   Landrath   or   Kantonsrath:    a   kind   of   sub- 
ordinate legislature. 

1)  Chosen  in  electoraj  districts. 

2)  Duties. 

t.  The  Regierungsrath  or  Standeskommission. 

1)  Seven     members     chosen     by     the     Landes- 

gemeinde;  sometimes  this  body  is  ex  officio 
a  part  of  the  Landrath. 

2)  Executive  functions;  chairman  is  the  Landam- 

mann  (White,  in  Am.  Hist.  Ass.,  Papers,  III, 
163). 

III.  In  the  Eighteen  Cantons,  Without  the  Landesgemeinden, 
the  Governments  Are  of  One  General  Type,  Similar  to 
that  of  the  Confederation. 

1.  The   "great   council"    (sometimes   called   Landrath   or 

Kantonsrath)  :  a  unicameral  legislative  assembly 
chosen  by  universal  suffrage. 

a.  Chosen  usually  for  three  or  four  years;  in  Frei- 
burg, 5  years ;  in  Grisons,  2  years. 

1).  Functions:  laws,  taxes,  administration,  appoint- 
ments. 

2.  The  executive  council  or  Regierungsrath. 

a.  Chosen  usually  for  three  or  four  years. 

1)  By  the  people  (without  districts)  in  10|^  can- 

tons. 

2)  By  great  council  in  8  cantons. 

&.  Composed  of  5,  7,  or  9  (Bern)  members;  minority 
representation   (except  in  two  cantons). 

c.  Functions  distributed  among  a  corresponding  num- 
ber of  departments  on  the  federal  plan. 

3.  Relation  in  powers  of  the  two  councils  arranged  on  the 

federal  plan;  non-partisan;  reports;  postulates. 

4.  Methods    of    dissolving    the    great    council :     why    its 

tyranny  dreaded?  No  veto;  little  judicial  con- 
trol. 

a.  By  "recall:"  procedure  by  initiative  (petition  of 
1  to  12  thousand)  and  referendum  (7  German 
cantons) . 

1).  By  constitutional  revision  through  initiative  and 
referendum. 


SWITZERLAND.  77 

c.  Control  by  "proportional  representation":  in  five 
cantons  (first  tried  in  1892)  :  advantages  of 
this  method? 

rV.  The  Cantonal  Courts  (Adams  and  Cunningham,  125-139; 
Vincent,  139  ff.). 

B.    Local  Government. 

I.  The  Districts:    Uses?   Not  a  True  Governmental  Division. 

1.  Duties;   administrative;   represent  the  state. 

2.  Officers  and  council. 

II.  The  Communes   (Lowell,  II,  235-6;  Adams  and  Cunning- 
ham, 98-114). 

1.  Control  by  the  mass-meeting;  distinction  between  Ein- 

whoner  and  Burger. 

2.  The  councils. 

a.  One  executive  council  in  the  communes  of  German 
cantons;  chosen  by  the  people  (in  Bern  a  presi- 
dent and  at  least  four  others). 

h.  The  French  communes  usually  have  each  two 
councils. 

1)  A  larger  body  taking  the  function  of  the  mass- 

meeting. 

2)  A  lesser  executive  council. 

REFERENCES. 

Adams  and  Cunningham,  chaps,  viii-ix,  98-139;  Lowell,  II,  220-37; 
Vincent,  State  and  Fed.  Govt.,  105-121,  132-144,  157-172;  idem,  Federal 
Govt.;  Winchester,  123-163,  174-191.  For  the  government  of  particular 
states,  see  Demombynes,  II,  354-486.  Compare  Woolsey,  II,  214  ff.; 
Tyson,  "Proportional  Representation  in  Switzerland,"  in  Arena,  XXXIV 
(1905),  344-47. 

Section  XXIX.    Swiss  Party  Government. 

I.  Party  Issues,  1848-1874. 

1.  General  characteristics  of  parties  and  party  questions 

during  the  period. 

2.  Leading  questions. 

a.  Revolutionary  refugees,  1848-50. 

h.  Military    capitulations,    1848-56;    radicals   versus 

conservatives  or  strict  constructionists, 
c.  Railroad  question,  1852-64. 

1)   Parties  of  state  and  private  ownership;  latter 
wins  in  establishment  of  the  Thallinie. 


78  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

2)  Parties  of  monopoly  versus  competition: 
former  called  "railroad  barons"  and  "cotton 
lords."  The  "Helvetia  Society,"  1858;  the 
Alps  railway. 

d.  The  Savoy  question;  its  relation  to  the  railway 

question. 

e.  The  question  of  revision,  1864-74. 

1)  The  treaty  with  France,  1864-1866:    the  ques- 

tion of  settlement  of  Jews  in  Switzerland. 

2)  Proposed    complete    revision,    1872;    parties 

divided  on  race  lines. 

3)  Successful  complete  revision,  1874 :   two  coun- 

cillors resign  on  the  issue. 
II.  Party  Issues,  1874-1905. 

1.  Regular  party  organizations  developed. 

a.  The  right:  Ultramontanes  or  clericals;  most  com- 
pact and  best  organized:  has  two  sections,  lib- 
erals and  extremists. 

J).  The  centre,  called  liberal  conservatives;  successors 
to  the  railroad  barons;  opposed  to  paternalism; 
comprise  conservative  Protestants;  less  than  one- 
fifth  of  assembly. 

c.  The  left  or  radicals:  opposed  to  Catholics  and 
orthodox  Protestants;  have  majority  in  both 
houses. 

1)  Older    radicals:     comprising    the    section    of 

socialistic  Germans,  who  are  in  favor  of 
broad  construction;  and  the  French  section, 
favoring  strict  construction,  and  opposed  to 
state  interference. 

2)  Democrats. 

3)  Socialists. 

2.  Comparison  of  party  history  during  the  two  periods 

(before  and  after  1874). 

3.  Relations   of  parties   to   the   government:    the   Swiss 

government  is  not  party-government;  neither 
a.  In  the  executive;  nor 
6.  In  the  legislative^ 

4.  No  party  machinery. 

a.  No  caucuses,  national  committees,  nor  conventions. 


SWITZERLAND.  79 

h.  No   national   party   leaders;    local   issues   control 
federal  issues. 
5.  Stability   of   national   and   local   parties    (Lowell,    II 
314-33). 

a.  Good   effects;    comparison   with   American   condi- 
tions. 

h.  Causes  of  stability. 

1)  Little  patronage  and  no  spoils. 

2)  Mode  of  choosing  executive;  effect  of  change 

to  popular  election?   Compare  with  America. 

3)  Effect    of   referendum:     not   used    as   party- 

weapon  after  1884;  how  the  call  for  refer- 
enda is  organized;  how  it  diminishes  the  im- 
portance of  party ;  relation  of  representatives 
to  constituents ;  rejection  of  laws  takes  place 
of  change  of  parties. 

4)  Character  and  traditions  of  the  people. 

III.  Comparison  of  Athenian,   Swiss,  and  American  Democ- 
racies (Lowell,  II,  333-36). 

REFERENCES. 
Lawell,  II,  301-36;  Adams  and  Cunningliam,  88-97;  Winchester,  83. 


Section  XXX.     The  Referendum  and  Initiative. 

Lowell,  II,  238  ff.;  Vincent,  Index;  Adams  and  Cunningham,  76  ff., 
Index;   Moses,  117-20;   Winchester,  Index. 

I.  The  Ancient  Referendum. 

1.  Absence  of  proper  representation  in  the  old  league; 

character  of  the  delegates  to  the  diets  ? 

2.  Significance  of  the  old  commission  of  the  delegates  ad 

audiendum  et  referendum. 

3.  Institutions  in  the  Orisons  (to  1854)  ;  and  in  Valais 

(to  1839). 

4.  The  old  referendum  in  Bern  and  Zurich. 
TI.  Origin  of  the  Modern  Referendum. 

1.  Influence  of  Rousseau. 

2.  The    constitutional    referendum    of   American    origin; 

appears  first  in  Switzerland  in  1802. 

3.  The  law  referendum  is  of  Swiss  origin ;  first,  in  form  of 


80  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

veto,  in  St.  Gallen  in  1831;  its  rise  in  other  cantons; 
to  what  is  the  institution  due? 
4.  Two  kinds  of  referenda: 
a.  Optional. 
&.  Obligatory. 

III.  Introduction  of  the  Referendum. 

1.  In  the  cantons:  exists  in  all  but  Freiburg  (Lowell,  II, 

250-2,  table). 
a.  Obligatory. 

1)  General. 

2)  For  financial  measures. 

6.  Optional:  sometimes  financial  measures  excepted. 

2.  In  the  confederation,  1874-1907. 

a.  Obligatory   on   constitutional   revisions. 
&.  Optional  on  laws. 

1)  By  petition  of  30,000;  or  on  demand  of  8  can- 

tons; latter  form  not  used. 

2)  Urgent    matters    excepted :     how    defined    in 

practice. 

IV.  Use  of  the  Referendum. 

1.  Number  and  distribution  of  referenda. 

a.  In   case  of  federal   laws    (optional)    and   amend- 

ments     (obligatory),     1874-1895      (Lowell,     II, 
254  ff.). 

b.  In  particular  cantons. 

1)  In  German  cantons. 

2)  In  French  cantons. 

2.  Character  of  the  federal  and  state  referenda  (Lowell, 

II,  254-261). 
a.  Proportion  of  negative  votes. 
6.  Tendency   to  reject  radical   measures;   alignment 

of  parties;   progressive  taxes;    Maine's  theory; 

labor  and  factory  laws. 

c.  Tendency  to  reject  complex  or  too  comprehensive 

laws,  and  those  involving  expenses. 

V.  Criticism  of  the  Referendum    (Lowell  II,  271-280;   Hart, 
"Vox  Populi  in  Switzerland,"  in  Nation,  LIX  (1894),  193-4. 

1.  Smallness  of  the  vote;  fines  for  failure  to  vote. 

a.  In  the  states;   examples  of  Bern,  Basel,   Zurich, 

Soleure. 
ft.  In  the  confederation  (less  than  60  per  cent.  vote). 


SWITZERLAND.  81 

2.  Absence  of  popular  discussion ;  means  of  educating  and 

spreading  information. 

3.  Lowering  the  sense  of  legislative  responsibility. 

4.  Swiss  opinion;  that  of  M.  Droz. 

VI.  The  Initiative  (Lowell,  II,  280-92;  Brown,  "The  Popular 
Initiative,"  in  Am.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  X,  713-749). 

1.  Principle  as  compared  with  that  of  the  referendum; 
relation  to  legislative  will. 

2.  Introduction  in  cantons. 

a.  First  by  Vaud  (1845)  and  Aargau  (1852)  without 
referendum. 

&.  Then  by  Rural  Basel  (1863),  Zurich,  Thurgau, 
Soleure  (all  in  1869),  with  referendum. 

c.  Now,  all  but  Geneva  for  constitutional  revision; 
and  all  but  Lucerne,  Freiburg,  and  Valais  for 
laws;  special  restrictions  in  St.  Gallen,  Grisons, 
and  Rural  Basel  (Lowell,  II,  281  n.  5). 

3.  Introduction  only  for  constitutional  revisions  by  the 

confederation,  1848,  1874;  restricted  to  complete  re- 
vision, 1880;  but  extended  to  partial,  1891. 

4.  Procedure  in  each  kind  of  revision  of  federal  constitu- 

tion; in  the  cantons  usually  presentation  of  a  com- 
pleted draft  forbidden. 

5.  Working  of  the  initiative. 

a.  In  the  confederation. 

&.  In  the  cantons;  the  case  of  Zurich. 

6.  Criticism  of  the  initiative  (Lowell,  II,  288-292;  Brown, 

in  Am.  Journal  of  Sodologij,  X  (1905),  713-49). 

VII.  The  Referendum  in  America  (Lowell,  II,  292-300;  Ober- 
holzer.  Referendum  in  America). 

1.  Kinds  'of  referenda  in  use. 

2.  Objections  to  adoption  of  the  general  law-referendum. 

3.  Advantages  of  the  local  referendum. 

REFERENCES. 
Oberholzer,  Referendum  in  America  (1900);  idem,  in  U.  of  Pa., 
Polit.  Econ.  and  PuMic  Law  Series,  V,  No.  4;  Dicey,  "Ought  the  Refer- 
endum to  be  Introduced  into  England?"  in  Contemp.  Review,  LVII, 
489^-511;  Brown  and  Hart,  as  above  cited;  Balfour,  in  Spectator, 
LXXII  (1894),  188-89;  Droz,  "Referendum  in  Switzerland,"  Cont. 
Review  (1895),  328-44;  Lowell,  II,  238-300;  idem,  "Referendum  in 
Switzerland  and  America,"  in  Atlantic,  LXXIII  (1894),  517-26;  idem, 
Essays  on  Government,  76-8;  Ell,  "Direct  Legislation  in  New  Zealand," 
in  Arena   (1903),  XXX,  268-72;   Borgeaud,  Adoption  and  Amendment 

6 


82  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

of  Constitutions,  Index,  at  "Initiative"  and  "Referendum,"  relating 
to  many  countries;  idem,  in  Arena  (1905),  XXXIII,  482-86  (practical 
results  in  Switzerland);  Moses,  117-20;  Adams  and  Cunningham,  76  ff.; 
Vincent,  State  and  Fed.  Government,  Index;  idem.  Government; 
Winchester,  164  fe.;  Demombynes,  II,  331  ff.;  McCrackan,  Rise  of 
Swiss  Republic,  chaps,  ix,  xii;  idem,  various  articles  in  Special  Card 
Catalogue;  Bluntschli,  475  ff.;  Cree,  Direct  Legislation  (1902);  Dep- 
loige,  Referendum  (1898);  Curti  (T.),  Die  Volksabstimmung  (1896); 
idem,  Geschichte  der  schweizerischenVolksgesetzgebung  (2d  ed.);  Kloti, 
Die  Proportionalwahl  in  der  Schweiz  (1901) ;  Keller  (A.),  Yolksinitiats- 
recht  (1889);  Stussi,  Referendum  und  Initiative  im  Kanton  ZUrich; 
idem.  Referendum  und  Initiative  in  den  Schweizerkantonen ;  Ganzoni, 
Beitrdge  zur  Kenntniss  des  hiindnerischen  Referendums ;  Herzog  (J. 
A-),  Das  Referendum  in  der  Schweiz  (1885);  Sullivan  (J.  W.),  Direct 
Legislation  (1892);  Commons  (J.  R.),  Proportional  Representation 
(1896). 

In  addition,  many  references  are  given  in  the  Special  Card  Cat- 
alogue. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ORIGIN    AND    CHARACTER    OF    THE    FEDERAL    CONSTITUTION 
OF  THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 


Section  XXXI.    Literature  Available  for  the  Course. 

I.  Bibliographies. 

Hart,  Federal  Qovernment,  188-189. 

Bourinot,  in  Royal  Society,  XI,  94-100  (Appendix) ;  iderm,  in 
Manual  of  Const.  Hist.;  idem,  in  Story  of  Canada. 

Brymner,  in  A.  H.  S.,  Pavers,  III,  395-407. 

Bradsliaw,  Self  Government,  361-74. 

Coffin,  Porvince  of  Que'bec,  558-62. 

Eakins,  in  Lil)rary  Journal  (1902),  XXVII,  248-251. 

Johnston,  in  A.  H.  R.   (1899),  I,  613-32. 

Wrong  (G.  M.)  and  Langton  (H.  H.),  Review  of  Historical  Pub- 
lications Relating  to  Canada,  II-VIII. 

Special  Card  Catalogue  of  the  Department  of  Political  Science 
and  Sociology. 

II.  Source-Books,  Documents,  Reports. 

Houston   (W.),  Documents  Illustrative  of  the  Canadian  Constitu- 

tution  (1891). 
Pope  (J.),  Confederation  Documents  (1895). 
Federal  Court,  Reports   (State  Library). 
Dominion  Parliament,  Sessional  Papers    (State  Library). 
Dominion  Parliament,  Statutes,  printed  in  Sessional  Papers. 
Statutes  and  Journals  of  each  of  the  states   (State  Library). 

III.  Geography. 

Lucas  (C.  P.),  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies  (1891). 
Greswell  (W.  P.),  Historical  Geography  of  Canada  (1890). 
Dilke   (C.  W.),  Problems  of  Greater  Britain  (1890). 
Century  Atlas;  and  other  Standard  atlases  and  wall-maps. 
Maps  in  the  works  of  Clement  and  Rawlings  below  mentioned, 
and  in  the  encyclopaedias. 

IV.  Historical  Manuals. 

Bryce  (George),  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People  (1897). 
Clement  (W.  H.  P.),  History  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  (1898). 

Good  school  history. 
Roberts  (C.  G.  D.),  History  of  Canada  (1902). 
Tuttle,  Short  History  of  Canada   (1878). 

(83) 


84  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

V.  Works  Suitable  for  Obtaining  a  Comprehensive  View  of  the 
Whole  Course. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Manual  of  the  Constitutional  History  of  Can- 
ada (rev.  ed.,  1901).     Clear,  trustworthy  outline. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  How  Canada  is  Governed  (5th  ed.,  1902).  A 
convenient  manual  on  civil  government. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Canada:  Story  of  Nations  series   (1896). 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Federal  Government  in  Canada,  in  J.  H.  U.  /Sf., 
VII   (1889),  457-618. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Parliaynentary  Government  in  Canada,  in  A.  H. 
A.,  Report,  (1891),  309-407.    Contains  a  bibliography. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.).  Parliamentary  Procedure  and  Practice  (2d  ed., 
1892). 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Procedure  (1894).  Abridgement  of  his  larger 
work.  Compare  Watson  (S.  J.),  Powers  of  Canadian  Parlia- 
ment (1880);  and  Macy,  Parliamentary  Procedure. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Canadian  Studies  in  Comparative  Politics,  in 
Royal  Society  of  Canada  (1893),  XI,  sec.  2,  77-94;  and  bound 
separately. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Canada  and  the  United  States,  in  A.  H.  A., 
Papers  (1891),  V,  275-333.  See  also  his  articles  on  the  sub- 
ject in  Annals  of  Am.  Acad.  (1890),  I,  1-25;  and  Forum  (1898), 
XXV,  329-40. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Canada  and  England,  in  Royal  Society  of  Can- 
ada (1890),  VIII,  sees.  2,  3.  See  on  similar  subjects  his  ar- 
ticles in  Forum  (1901),  XXXI,  1-14;  Royal  Society  (1888), 
III,  sees.  2,  3;  Contemp.  Rev.  (1892),  LXII,  590-608;  Canadian 
Magazine   (1897),  IX,  93-101. 

Bourinot  (J.  G.),  Canada  and  Australia,  in  Royal  Society  (1895), 

I,  sec.  2. 
Bourinot   (J.  G.).     For  his  other  books  and  articles,  see  Special 

Card  Catalogue. 

British  America   (by  various  writers,  1900). 

L#efroy  (A.  H.  F.),  Law  of  Legislative  Power  in  Canada  (1897-8). 

McLean   (S.  J.),  Tariff  History  of  Canada  (1895). 

Munro  (J.  E.  C),  Constitution  of  Canada  (1889).  Good  legal  and 
constitutional   treatise. 

Siegfried    (A.),  Le  Canada   (1906). 

Teece  (R.  C),  A  Comparison  Between  the  Federal  Constitutions 
of  Canada  and  Australia  (1902). 

Todd  (A.),  Parliamentary  Government  in  the  British  Colonies 
(2d  ed.,  1894).  An  able  and  monumental  treatise.  For  Can- 
ada, see  especially  432-624. 

VI.  Other   General    and    Special    Works    Important   for   the 
Course. 

Bradshaw   (F.),  Self -Government  in  Canada  (1903).     On  Durham 

and  his  Report;  has  historical  sketch  of  preceding  period. 
Coffin  (Victor),  The  Province  of  Quedec  (1896). 


CANADA.  85 

Cooper  (J.  A.),  "The  Canadian  Premier  and  the  U.  S.  President," 
in  Canadian  Magazine  (1893-4),  II,  415-21. 

Cotton  (J.  S.)  and  Payne  (E.  J.),  Colonies  and  Dependencies 
(1883),  Part  11. 

Davidson  (J.),  "England  and  her  Colonies,  1783-1897,"  in  Pol.  8c. 
Quart  (1899),  XIV,  39  fC.,  211-39. 

Douglas  (J.),  Canadian  Independence  and  British  Imperial  Fed- 
eration  (1894). 

Durham  (Earl  of),  Report  (1901,  1905).     Important  source. 

Egerton  (H.  E.),  Short  History  of  British  Colonial  Policy  (1897). 
Index  at  "Canada." 

Garnet  (R),  "Authorship  of  Lord  Durham's  Canada  Report,"  in 
Eng.  Hist.  Review  (1902),  XVII,  268-75. 

Griffin  (M.  J.),  "Did  Lord  Durham  write  his  own  Report?"  in 
Canadian  Magazine  (1896),  VII,  520-3.  For  other  articles  on 
the  Report,  see  Egerton  and  Shaw  in  Special  Card  Cata- 
logue; also  in  same  the  articles  in  Democratic  Rev.  (1839), 
V,  542-79;  Nineteenth  Century  (1901),  L,  12-20;  Dublin  Uni- 
versity Magazine  (1839),  XIII,  355-68;  Westminster  Review 
(1838-9),  XXXII,   241-60. 

Hodgins  (T.),  British  and  American  Diplomacy  (1900). 

JeHkyns  (H.),  British  Rule  and  Jurisdiction  Beyond  the  8eas 
(1902).     Index  at  "Canada." 

Leacock  (S.),  Greater  Canada  (1907).    Pamphlet. 

Lewis   (G.  C),  Government  of  Dependencies  (1891). 

Macy   (J.),  Parliamentary  Procedure. 

Rambaut  (T.  D.),  "The  Hudson's  Bay  Half-Breeds  and  Louis 
Riel's  Rebellion,"  in  Pol.  8c.  Quart.,   II    (1887),  135-96. 

Rawlings  (T.),  Confederation  of  the  British  North  American  Col- 
onies (1865). 

Smith  (G.),  Canada  and  the  Canadian  Question  (1891). 

Snow   (A.  H.),  Administration  of  Dependencies   (1902). 

Stewart,  Canada  and  the  Administration  of  the  Earl  of  Dufferin 
(1878). 

Williams  (J.  S.),  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  and  the  Liberal  Party  (2 
vols.,   1904). 

VII.  Short  Accounts. 

Anson,  Law  and  Custom  of  the  Constitution,  II,  255-57;  Hart, 
Federal  Government,  75-76;  Statesman's  Year  Book;  Bryce 
(G.),  in  Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  History,  VIII,  131-40; 
Seeley,  Expansion  of  England,  151-60;  Dicey,  Law  of  the  Con- 
stitution, 152-54;  Lalor,  Cyclopaedia,  I,  827;  Reade,  "Making  of 
Canada,"  in  Royal  Society,  Transactions  (1884),  II,  sec.  2; 
Dareste,  I,  354;  Bryce  (J.),  Commonwealth,  Index;  Mather, 
in  Atlantic  (1880),  XLVI,  56-57;  Acland,  Political  History  of 
England,  Index  at  "Canada;"  Amos,  Fifty  Years  of  the  Con- 
stitution, Index;  Bourinot,  "Canada  during  the  Victorian  Era," 
in  Royal  Society,  III,  sees.  2,  3;  idem,  "British  Rule  in  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,"  in  Forum,  XXXI,  1-14;  Jebb,  Studies 
in  Colonial  Nationalism  (1905),  Index  at  "Canada;"  Hincks, 
"The  Crown  and  the  Cabinet  in  Canada,"  in  Nineteenth  Cen- 


86  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

tury  (1878),  IV,  423-31;  Parkin,  Imperial  Federation  (1892), 
chaps,  v-vii;  Love,  "Canadian  Form  of  Government,  in  Forum 
(1889),  VII,  645-58;  Payne,  History  of  European  Colonies,  In- 
dex; Wilson,  The  State,  428-32;  Wilson  (D.),  "Canada,"  in  Bri- 
tannica,  IV,  675-91;  Tupper,"Canada's  International  Status,"  in 
Canadian  Magazine  (1898),  XI,  409-12;  Stanwood,  "Canada 
and  the  British  Connection,"  in  Atlantic  (1884),  LIV,  839-48; 
Reinsch,  Colonial  Government,  Index.  See  the  many  articles 
in  the  Special  Card  Catalogue. 

Section  XXXII.     The  Struggle  for  Free  Institutions  in 
Canada,  1763-1837. 

I.  The  Establishment  of  the  Original  Five  Provinces;  the  first 
three  are  the  so-called  "maritime  provinces." 

1.  Nova  Scotia:  part  of  French  Acadie;  acquired  by  Etig- 

land,  1731;  gained  a  legislative  assembly,  1758;  until 
1784  it  included  New  Brunswick  and  Cape  Breton, 
the  latter  called  Isle  Royale  by  the  French  and  gained 
by  England,  1763;  and  until  1769  it  included  Prince 
Edward  (called  "St.  John").  Cape  Breton  was  a 
separate  province  1784-1820;  thereafter,  permanently 
reunited  with  Nova  Scotia. 

2.  Prince  Edward  (St.  John  until  1799)  :  made  a  separate 

province  1769 ;  got  an  elective  assembly  1773. 

3.  New  Brunswick:    made  separate  province  1784;  first 

settled  by  "United  Empire  loyalists." 

4.  Lower  Canada:    so-called  under  act  of  1791;  part  of 

"Quebec,"  1763-1791;  part  of  "Canada,"  1840-1867; 
since  1867,  again  called  "Quebec." 

5.  Upper  Canada:    so-called,  1791-1840;  part  of  Quebec, 

1763-1791;  part  of  "Canada,"  1840-1867;  since  1867, 
called  "Ontario";  founded  mainly  by  "United  Empire 
loyalists." 

II.  Government  of  Old  Quebec  Province,  1763-1791:  Begin- 
nings of  Representative  and  Legislative  Institutions  (Bouri- 
not.  How  Canada  is  Governed^  12;  idem^  Parliamentary 
Government^  312  ff. ;  idem^  Const.  Hist.,  5-19) . 

1.  The  proclamation  of  George  III,  1763  (Houston,  67-73; 

Macdonald,  Select  Charters,  267). 
a.  Quebec,    the    two    Floridas,    and    Grenada    made 

provinces;  limits  of  Quebec? 
t.  Provisions  regarding  Indian  lands  and  forbidding 


CANADA.  87 

western  settlement  (see  Howard,  Preliminaries 
of  Revolution,  229  ff. ;  Alden,  New  Governmerds) . 

c.  Administered    by   a   governor    (Murray,    1764-68; 

Carleton,  1768-78;  Haldimand,  1778-1786;  Carle- 
ton,  1786  ff.)  and  a  council  appointed  by  him; 
there  were  also  a  chief- justice  and  attorney- 
general. 

d.  Why  were  the  French  laws  retained,  and  an  as- 

sembly not  called?  (See  Coffin,  Province  of 
Qiie'hec,  and  his  Quebec  Act.) 

2.  The  Quebec  act,  1774. 

a.  How  regarded  by  the  13  colouies;  assertions  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  not  sustained  by 
the  acts  (Howard,  276-79;  Coffin,  in  A.  H.  A., 
Report,  30  ff.;  Clement,  99-102,  117,121). 

&.  How  regarded  by  the  French  Canadians. 

c.  Provisions:  boundaries;  laws,  criminal  and  civil; 
clergy  and  religion  (Catholics) ;  government  by 
a  legislative  council  appointed  by  the  crown  (17 
to  23)  ;  why  no  elective  assembly  granted?  (Cof- 
fin, Province  of  Quebec;  Howard,  277  ff. ;  Clement. 
100-1;  Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  9-13.) 

3.  Abuses  of  government  during  the  period,  1763-1791. 

a.  Oppression  of  the  French  population  by  the  small 
English  minority:  rule  of  needy  and  greedy 
office-holders  and  "450  contemptible  sutlers  and 
traders"  (Carleton). 

6.  Bad  effects  of  the  navigation  laws. 

c.  Absentee  office-holders  appointed  by  Lord  George 

Germain. 

d.  Corrupt    councils    organized    a  pacte    de   famine 

(Clement,  118). 
6.  Public  education  neglected. 
III.  Character  of  the  Government  of  the  Maritime  Provinces 
(Bourinot,  How  Canada  is  Governed,  27). 
1.  Abuses  in  administration  and  policy. 

a.  In  Cape  Breton,  English  monopoly  forbade  work- 

ing of  coal  deposits. 

b.  Land-grabbing  in  Prince  Edward,  1767  ff.    (Clem- 

ent, 105). 

c.  Manufactures  discouraged. 


88  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

2.  No  written  constitution;  their  institutions  compared 
with  those  of  the  two  Canadas ;  their  forms  of  govern- 
ment (Bourinot,  op.  cit.,  27-31). 

IV.  Development  of  Kepresentative  Institutions  in  the  Two 
Canadas  under  the  Constitutional  Act  of  1791. 

1.  Provinces   of   Lower   and   Upper    Canada    created   by 

division  of  Quebec. 

2.  Government  (Clement,  128-135;  Bourinot,  How  Canada 

is  Governed^  19  ff. ;  idem,  Parliamentary  Goveiyir 
ment,  314-15;  idem,  Const.  Hist.,  13-24). 

a.  Executive:  the  crown  represented  in  Lower 
Canada  by  governor  and  in  Upper  Canada  by 
a  lieutenant-governor,  with  absolute  veto,  aided 
by  an  executive  council  who  often  had  seats  in 
the  legislative  council;  comprised  heads  of  de- 
partments, and,  in  Lower  Canada,  the  chief 
justice,  another  judge,  and  the  Anglican  bishop. 

6.  Parliament:   consisting  in  each  province  of 

1)  The  crown. 

2)  The  legislative  council,  appointed  by  crown 

for  life;  comprising  judges,  members  of 
North- West  Company,  etc.  (Clement,  191) ; 
in  Upper  Canada,  the  bishop  and  archdeacon. 

3)  Elective  assembly:    not  less  than  50  members 

in  Lower  Canada;  nor  less  than  16  in  Upper; 
restricted  franchise  and  legislative  powers. 

c.  Courts. 

d.  Other  provisions:  tithes;  "clergy  reserves";  legal 

system  left  to  the  determination  of  the  as- 
semblies. 

3.  Abuses  of  government  before  the  Revolution  of  1837. 

a.  The  "old  colonial  system"  in  the  Canadas;  rule  of 
Downing  street;  board  of  trade  and  the  colonial 
secretary  (1794)  ;  vicious  policy  of  the  colonial 
office  prevents  self-government;  governor's 
powers  controlled  by  the  colonial  secretary. 

6.  Colonies  exploited  through  extortionate  fees  and 
large  salaries  for  non-resident  office-holders 
(Clement,   188). 

c.  The  "family  compact":  universal  graft  for  tlie 
magnates  favored  by  bad  election  laws  (Clement, 


CANADA.  89 

190)  ;  and  by  the  composition  of  the  legislative 
council. 

d.  Legislative  oppression;  lack  of  proper  control  of 
revenues. 
4.  Varieties  of  graft  and   illustrative  evidences  of  bad 
government. 

a.  Land-graft  in  Lower  Canada  before  1812  (Clement, 
146-7). 

&.  Reign  of  terror  under  Governor  Craig,  1807-11: 
oppression  of  the  French;  assembly  tries  to  ex- 
clude judges;  arrest  of  Bedard,  Papineau,  and 
other  leaders  (Bradshaw,  46  ff.). 

G.  Bad  educational  and  oppressive  marriage  laws  in 
Upper  Canada. 

d.  Public   works  graft   and   land-grafts   after   1812; 

highway-graft. 

e.  "Family  compact"  in  the  courts. 

f.  Abuse  of  the  law  of  criminal  libel;  persecution  of 

Robert  Gourlay,  1817-19;  of  the  editors,  1828- 
1835 ;  cases  of  Joseph  Howe  and  Lyon  Mackenzie 
(Clement,  193-200). 

g.  Petty  tyranny  for  political  purposes. 

h.  Seditious  meetings  act,  1818;  case  of  Captain 
Matthews,  1825. 

i.  Religious  liberty  denied;  the  struggle  for  it  (Clem- 
ent, 200-207;  bigoted  policy  of  the  Anglican 
church. 

REFERENCES. 
Houston,  Const.  Documents,  67-78  (Proclamation),  90-96  (Quebec 
Act),  112-145  (Const.  Act);  Davidson,  in  Pol.  8c.  Quarterly  (1899), 
XIV,  39  ff.,  211  ff.;  Clement,  Hist,  of  Canada,  94-237;  Roberts,  History 
of  Canada,  176-181,  198  ff.,  208-219,  257-292;  Bourinot,  How  Canada  is 
Governed,  15-32;  idem,  Const.  Hist.,  5-23;  idem,  Parliamentary  Gov- 
ernment, 311-316;  Bradshaw,  25-89;  Durham,  Report,  Table  of  Contents; 
Todd,  Index;  Bryce  (G.),  Short  History,  225-32,  248  ff.,  261  ff.,  298  ff., 
especially  357-379;  Greswell,  British  Colonization,  74  ff.;  Egerton, 
Short  History,  243-55,  302  ff.;  Tarring,  Law  Relating  to  the  Colonies, 
38  ff.     See  many  articles  in  the  Special  Card  Catalogue. 

Section  XXXIII.     The  Rebellion  op  1837^  Lord  Durham\s 
Report,  and  Responsible  Government,  1840-1867. 

I.  Fundamental  Causes  of  the  Uprising. 

1.  Wrong  colonial  policy. 

2.  Bad  government  (see  preceding  syllabus). 


90  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

II.  Proximate  Causes  of  the  Uprising. 

1.  In  Upper  Canada,  the  struggle  for  secularization  of 

the  "clergy  reserves" ;  controversy  between  Strachan 
and  Ryerson;  substance  of  the  various  bills,  1828- 
1835;  effect  of  the  endowment  of  the  44  new  rectories, 
1835;  substance  of  the  act  settling  the  controversy, 
1840. 

2.  In   Lower    Canada,    charges   against   the   judges;    the 

struggle  to  control  the  entire  civil-list  (revenue)  ; 
interference  of  the  British  parliament  by  the  "Canada 
Trade  Act"  (Clement,  210-11). 

3.  All  supplies  refused  by  the  assembly  of  Lower  Canada, 

1827;  struggle  with  Governor  Dalhousie;  counter 
petitions;  executive  oppression. 

4.  Report  of  the   committee  of  the  house   of   commons, 

1828;  not  acted  upon  by  parliament;  but  ac- 
cepted as  guiding  policy  by  the  colonial  oflSce. 

a.  The  condition,  a  permanent  civil-list,  rejected  in 
Lower  Canada. 

6.  The  condition  adopted  in  Upper  Canada :  the 
"Everlasting  Salaries  Bill." 

c.  Other  reforms  recommended  by  the  report  carried 

out  by  Kempt  (1829-30)  in  Lower  Canada;  five 
years's  deadlock,  1832-7;  Papineau  and  Neilson 
leaders  of  two  divisions  of  the  reform  party. 

d.  In  Upper  Canada:    expulsion  of  Lyon  McKenzie, 

1831-3;  but  the  record  of  expulsion  expunged, 
1834;  the  Seventh  Report  (1834);  the  "Family 
Compact,"  led  by  Lieutenant-Governor  F.  B. 
Head,  victorious,  1836;  the  "Bread-and-Butter 
Parliament,"  1836-7. 
G.  Report  of  the  Imperial  Commissioners,  1837. 

1)  In  character  reactionary. 

2)  Russell's  resolutions  denying  responsible  gov- 

ernment (March,  1837). 

III.  The  Revolt. 

1.  Lower  Canada:    precipated  by  the  attempt  to  arrest 

Papineau  and  other  leaders:  fights  at  St.  Denis,  St. 
Charles,  and  St.  Eustache;  the  rebellion  crushed. 

2.  In  Upper  Canada :  failure  of  the  plan  to  take  Toronto : 

rebellion  put  down. 


CANADA.  91 

3.  Eeign  of  terror  and  punishment  of  the  insurgents; 
constitution  of  Lower  Canada  suspended,  1838 ;  Lount 
and  Matthews  (Upper  Canada)   executed. 

IV.  Lord  Durham  and  His  Report. 

1.  Character  and  previous  career  of  Durham. 

2.  His  course  in  Canada;  why  he  resigned? 

3.  Substance  of  his  report;  called  the  "Great  Charter"  of 

Canada. 

4.  Question  of  authorship   (see  references  in  sec.  XXXI. 

above;  and  in  the  Special  Card  Catalogue). 

V.  Government  of  United  Canada,  1840  (Act  of  3  and  4  Vic- 
toria, chap.  35;  text  in  Houston,  149-85). 

1.  The  legislature. 

a.  Legislative  council:  at  first  not  less  than  20  mem- 
bers to  be  appointed  for  life  by  governor  in 
king's  name,  but  made  elective,  1856  (Houston, 
177-9,  182)  ;  speaker  appointed  in  same  way;  but 
choice  left  to  determination  of  legislature,  1859, 
and  made  elective,  1860. 

6.  Legislative  assembly;  42  members  from  each  of 
two  old  provinces,  but  increased  to  65  in  1853; 
quorum,  20;  qualification,  500  pounds. 

2.  Executive. 

a.  Governor;  powers  of  governor  and  crown  respec- 
tively. 

&.  Executive  council  or  cabinet  (Houston,  167-8)  • 
8  members;  made  responsible,  1847-8. 

3.  Courts. 

4.  Revenues. 

VI.  The  Establishment  of  Real  Responsible  Government,  1849 
(see  especially  Leacock,  in  Am.  Political  Science  Review,  I, 
355-92). 

VII.  Progress  of  Responsible  Government,   1849-1867. 

1.  In   the   maritime   provinces    (Clement,    255-274,  294-9, 

passim). 

2.  In  Canada   (Clement,  274-94;   Bourinot,  Const.  Hist., 

30-37). 

REFERENCES. 

In  addition  to  the  above  citations,  see  Bourinot,  Federal  Govern- 
ment, 474-484;  the  works  of  Bryce,  Bradshaw,  Roberts,  and  Durham's 


92  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

Report.  For  the  whole  period  covered  by  the  preceding  outlines,  there 
are  interesting  illustrations  of  parliamentary  government  in  Mat- 
thews, Powers  of  Canadian  Parliaments  (1880),  9-46;  Smith,  Canada 
and  the  Canadian  Question,  121  ff.  The  best  treatment  of  the  struggle 
for  real  responsible  government  is  Leacock  (S),  "Responsible  Gov- 
ernment in  the  British  Colonial  System,"  in  Am.  Political  Science 
Review,  I,  355-92,     Consult  also  the  articles  of  Davidson  above  cited. 


Section  XXXIV.    The  Origin  op  the  Federal  Constitution 

OF  Canada. 

I.  Preliminaries  of  the  Federation. 

1.  Early  suggestions  and  discussions. 

a.  The  question  of  federal  or  legislative  union,  1840 
(Durham,  Report^  116-21;  Bradshaw,  Index  at 
"Union  of  the  Canadas")  ;  the  convention  in 
Quebec,  1839. 

6.  The  demand  for  a  "double  majority";  how  far  in 
practice  carried  out?  (Bourinot,  Const.  Hist., 
38-9.)  The  double  or  coalition  premiership:  one 
premier  for  each  race  (Smith,  Canada  and  the 
Canadian  Question,  chap.  vii). 

c.  Upper  Canada  demands  proportionate  representa- 
tion according  to  population;  this  leads  nearly 
to  legislative  deadlock  between  the  two  sections, 
1862-1864. 

2.  Rise  of  a  sentiment  for  federation. 

a.  Resolutions  in  favor  by  assembly  of  Nova  Scotia, 

1854-1861    (Bourinot,  Buildot^s  of  Nova  Scotia, 

App.  I  and  J;  idem,  Const.  Hist.,  40-1;  Roberts, 

342). 

h.  Expediency  of  union  favored  by  Cartier-Macdonald 

government,  1858. 
c.  Proposed  legislative  union  of  the  maritime  prov- 
inces;   convention   of  these  and   Canadian   min- 
isters at  Charlottetown  decides  to  consider,  in  a 
meeting  at  Quebec,  the  feasibility  of  a  general 
union. 
II.  The     Quebec     Conference      (constitutional     convention), 
October  10  to  October  28,  1864  (see  the  bibliographical  note 
on  the  origin  of  the  federation  in  Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  41, 
n.  2;  and  Rawlings,  3  ff.). 

1.  Composed  of  33  delegates:     12  from  Canada    (6  for 


CANADA.  93 

each  section),  7  from  New  Brunswick,  5  from  Nova 
Scotia,  7  from  Prince  Edward,  2  from  Newfoundland. 

2.  Each  province  had  one  vote. 

3.  Proceedings  with  closed  doors. 

4.  The  debates   (Pope,  Confederation  Documents;  Bouri- 

not,  Canada  under  British  Rule^  chap,  viii;  Pope, 
Life  of  Macdonald). 

III.  Proceedings  in  the  Legislature  of  Canada,  February  3 
to  March  14,  1865. 

1.  Debate  on  the  "seventy-two  resolutions"  submitted  by 

the  conference  (the  text  is  in  Rawlings,  205-211). 

2.  Address  to  the  queen  favoring  union  adopted  by  vote 

of  45  to  15  in  legislative  council,  and  of  91  to  33  in 
assembly. 

3.  Similar  addresses  from  two  other  provinces. 

IV.  The  Westminster  Palace  Conference,  December,  1866. 

1.  Proceedings  on  the  proposed  union  in  New  Brunswick 

and  Nova  Scotia ;  refusal  of  Newfoundland  and  Prince 
Edward. 

2.  Conference  at  Westminster  arranged  minor  terms  re- 

lating to  the  financial  interests  of  the  four  provinces. 

V.  Proceedings  in  the  Imperial  Parliament. 

1.  Plan  of  union  submitted  February  12,  1867. 

2.  Character  of  the  debates;  plan  favored  by  leaders  of 

all  parties. 

3.  Royal  assent  March  29,  1867. 

4.  Royal  proclamation,  May  22,  1867,  declaring  the  four 

provinces  (including  Quebec  and  Ontario)  one  do- 
minion from  July  1,  1867;  and  naming  the  first 
senators. 

VI.  The  New  Provinces  and  the  New  Territory    (Bourinot, 
How  Canada  is  Governed,  35-41). 

1.  Acquisition  of  unorganized  territory. 

a.  Constitutional  provision  for  admission  of  new 
provinces  (sec.  146  of  the  act). 

t.  Purchase  of  Rupert's  Land  and  the  Northwest 
Territory  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
1869;  actual  transfer,  1869-70;  Louis  Riel's  Half- 
Breed    rebellion    (Pope,    Macdonald,    II,    49-55; 


94  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  43-5;  idem,  Canada  under 
British  Rule,  227-8;  Roberts  358,  361.  See  Bryce, 
Clement,  and  Rawlings,  and  Rambaut,  in  Pol. 
Sc.  Quart.,  II,  135-196). 
c.  These  lands  made  part  of  the  Dominion  by  an  order 
in  council,  June  30,  1870,  to  take  effect  July  15, 
1870;  all  other  British  North  American  terri- 
tories, except  Newfoundland,  added  to  the  Do- 
minion, 1880. 

2.  New  provinces  admitted. 

a.  Manitoba,  1870. 

6.  British  Columbia,  1871. 

c.  Prince  Edward,  1873. 

d.  Alberta  and   Saskatchewan,   July,   1905    {Revised 

statutes  of  Canada,  1906,  IV,  3183  ff.     See  Cram's 
Standard  Am.  Atlas,  1906,  pp.  482-3). 

3.  The  territories  (since  1905.     See  Revised  Statutes^  II, 

1151-73,  1175-1219). 

a.  The  North- West  Territory :  governed  by  a  commis- 
sioner and  a  council  of  4. 

h.  The  Yukon  Territory:  governed  by  a  commissioner 
and  an  executive  council  of  10,  5  being  elected. 

4.  Newfoundland  still  declines  to  enter  the  union;  effect 

of  the  French  concessions? 

5.  Creation  of  new  provinces  from  unorganized  territory 

(see  act  of  1871  in  Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  231-2.  For 
the  nine  "Districts"  before  act  of  July  20,  1905,  see 
idem^  How  Canada  is  Governed,  39;  idem,  Const. 
Hist. J  73  ff. ;  and  map  in  Encyclopedia  Americana). 

REFERENCES. 
Smith,   Canada   and   Canadian   Question,   138   ff.,   147    ff.,   passim; 
Roberts,  334  ff.;  Bryce,  44  ff.;  and  the  authorities  above  cited. 

Section  XXXV.  General  Character  of  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution OF  the  Dominion  of  Canada:  The  British 
North  American  Act  (30  and  31  Victoria,  chap.  3;  and 
supplementary  acts). 

I.  Influence  of  the  United  States;  of  the  Swiss  Instrument. 

II.  Plan  and  Scope  of  the  Constitutional  Act  (Bourinot,  Par, 
Govt.,  339  ff.;  idem,  Fed.  Govt.,  485  ff.). 


CANADA.  95 

1.  The  preamble:  general  purpose  and  expediency  of  the 

union  declared. 

2.  Part  I.     Preliminary   (sees.  1-2)  :  name  and  force  of 

the  act. 

3.  Part  II.     Union  (sees.  3-8). 

4.  Part  III.     Executive  power  (sees.  9-16)  :  queen;  Eng- 

lish  privy   council;    governor-general;    queen's   privy 
council  for  Canada. 

5.  Part  IV.    Legislative  power  sees.  17-57). 

a.  Parliament:  queen,  senate,  house  of  commons. 
&.  Elections  and  election  districts. 

c.  Speaker;  quorum. 

d.  Money  votes;  royal  assent;  governor's  assent  and 

disallowance  by  order  in  council. 

6.  Part  V.  Provincial  constitutions  (sees.  58-90). 

7.  Part    VI.    Distribution    of    legislative    powers    (sees. 

91-95). 
a.  Powers  reserved  to  the  Dominion  parliament  (and 

crown). 
5.  Exclusive  powers  of  the  provincial  legislatures, 
c.  Special    provisions    for    education,    uniformity    of 

laws,  agriculture,  and  immigration. 

8.  Part  VII.     Judicature   (sees.  96-101)  :  supreme  court; 

provincial  courts ;  judicial  committee  of  privy  council. 

9.  Part  VIII.     Revenues;  debts;  assets;  taxation   (sees. 

102-126). 

10.  Part  IX.    Miscellaneous  provisions  (sees.  127-144). 

11.  Part  X.     Intercolonial  railway  (sec.  145). 

12.  Part  XI.    Admission  of  other  colonies  (sees.  146-147). 

III.  Was    the    Constitution,    Without    a   Plebiscite,   Legal? 
(See  Smith,  143  ff.). 

TEXT  OP  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

Houston,  Oonst.  Documents,  186-239;  British  Statutes,  XV,  268,  289; 
Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  191-235;  idem,  How  Canada  is  Governed,  289- 
326;  Munro,  Constitution  of  Canada,  278-312;  Todd,  Parliamentary 
Government,  857-94;  Appleton,  Annual  Cyclopedia,  1866,  pp.  657-66; 
Dareste,  II,  354-84;  Roberts,  443-76.  For  analysis  of  the  text,  see  Hart, 
Federal  Government,  92  fE.,  103  ff. 


96  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

Section  XXXVI.     The  Dominion  Parliament. 
A.     The  Senate. 

I.  Composition  (since  1905). 

1.  Number:    87  since  1905. 

a.  The  old  provinces  by  the  .constitution  in  three 
groups  of  24  senators  each:  Ontario,  Quebec, 
maritime  provinces,  the  latter  having,  respec- 
tively: Xew  Brunswick,  10;  Nova  Scotia,  10; 
Prince  Edward,  4. 

6.  New  provinces. 

1)  Nanitoba,  4. 

2)  British  Columbia,  3. 

3)  Alberta,  4. 

4)  Saskatchewan,  4. 

2.  Provision  for  admission  of  new  provinces  (act  of  1871, 

34-5   Vict,    chap.   28;    Bourinot,    Const.   Hist.,   231; 
Const. y  sec.  147). 

3.  Provision  for  increase  of  3  or  6  in  case  of  deadlock 

(sec.    26)  :    is    it    of   practical   importance?      (See 
Smith.) 

4.  Mode  of  appointment;  life  tenure. 

5.  Qualifications:  age,  30  years;  natural-born  or  natural- 

ized  subjects  of  king;   residence;   property;  special 
provision  for  Quebec  and  its  motive. 

6.  Vacancy  by  resignation. 

7.  Vacancy    by    disqualification;    vacancies,    how    filled; 

questions  regarding  determined  by  senate. 

8.  Salary:  |1,000  and  mileage. 

9.  Choice  of  speaker:  appointed  and  removed  by  gover- 

nor-general;   provisions    for    quorum    and    majority 
vote. 

II.  Powers  of  Senate. 

1.  To  what  extent  coordinate  with  those  of  commons? 

2.  Action  on  money-bills? 

3.  Powers  compared  w^ith  those  of  U.  S.  senate? 

4.  Sources  of  the  senate's  weakness. 

a.  Mode  of  appointment  and  life- tenure:  what  alter- 
nate plans  considered? 


CANADA.  97 

6.  Actual  appointment  by  a  single  party  leader,  the 
premier. 

c.  Mediocrity  of  the  ability  of  senators. 

d.  How  far  used  to  reward  party  service?  Sources  of 

corruption?  Why  dangerous  to  responsible  gov- 
ernment through  union  with  the  "outs"?  (See 
Smith.) 

REFERENCES. 

Smith,  Canada  and  Canadian  Question,  162-170;  Munro,  Constitu- 
tion, 6,  142-8,  230;  Todd,  Parliamentary  Governrnent,  63,  204,  320-1, 
699-700;  Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  57-60;  idem.  How  Canada  is  Governed, 
92-95;  idem.  Par.  Govt.,  339-40;  idem,  Federal  Govt.,  550  ff.;  Roberts, 
351;  Tarring,  78-79,  passim;  Clement,  326-27;  Statesman's  Tear  Book 
(1906),  496;   Revised  Statutes   (1906),  IV,  3183  ff. 

B.     The  House  of  Commons  (sees.  37-57). 

I.  Composition  and  Franchise. 

1.  Number :   elected  for  5  years,  subject  to  dissolution. 

a.  For  the  four  provinces  at  time  of  the  act,  181: 
Ontario,  82;  Quebec,  65;  Nova  Scotia,  19;  New 
Brunswick,  15. 

6.  Present  number  (1906),  214:  Quebec,  65;  Ontario, 
86;  Nova  Scotia,  18;  New  Brunswick,  13;  Mani- 
toba, 10;  British  Columbia,  7;  Prince  Edward, 
4;  Alberta,  10;  Saskatchewan,  10;  Yukon,  1  (see 
Revised  Statutes  of  Canada^  1906,  I,  24,  act  of 
4  and  5  Ed.  VII,  chap.  3.  On  growth  of  repre- 
sentation, Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  60;  idem,  How 
Canada  is  Governed,  95 ;  New  Int.  Encyclopaedia, 
III,  842-43;  Statesman's  Year  Book,  1906,  p. 
496). 

2.  Principle     of     apportionment     after     each     decennial 

census:  Quebec   (65  members)   taken  as  a  standard. 

3.  Qualifications     and     disqualifications     of     members 

(Munro,  128-130);  substance  of  the  "Corrupt _  Prac- 
tices Act." 

4.  Quorum;  majority;  resignation;  expulsion. 

5.  Salary  and  mileage   (Munro,  118-119;  Bourinot,  How 

Canada  is  Ooverned,  97). 

6.  Officers  of  the  commons  (Munro,  112  ff.,  138;  Bourinot, 

How  Canada  is  Governed,  97-8). 
7 


98  FEDERAL   INSTITUTIONS. 

a.  The  speaker:  election;  vote;  salary  ($4,000.00); 
powers  (Munro,  119). 

6.  Deputy-speaker. 

c.  Other  officers :  sergeant  at  arms ;  clerk ;  clerk- 
assistant;  law-clerk  (for  drafting  public  bills). 

7.  Powers;  money-votes;  tax  and  revenue  bills. 

8.  The  franchise. 

a.  1867-1885 :  for  federal  elections,  laws  of  respective 
provinces  accepted. 

6.  1885-1898,  a  general  federal  law  (see  summary  in 
Bourinot,  How  Canada  is  Governed^  99-100;  and 
Munro,  124-6). 

c.  Since  1898,  provincial  laws  determine  as  at  first: 
thus  manhood  suffrage,  qualified  by  residence  and 
British  citizenship,  prevails,  except  in  Quebec 
and  Nova  Scotia  where  a  small  property  qualifi- 
cation exists;  who  are  disqualified?  (Munro, 
127.) 

9.  Election   (Munro,  130-138;  Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  85- 

87). 
a.  Writ;  speaker's  warrant  in  case  of  vacancy. 
6.  Nominations. 

c.  Australian  ballot. 

d.  Trial  of  election  petitions. 

C.     Provisions  Relating  to  Parliament  as  a  Whole. 

I.  Parliamentary  Privileges,  Powers,  and  Immunities    (sees. 
17-20). 

1.  As  determined  by  Dominion  statutes. 

2.  Not  to  exceed  those  of  British  commons. 

II.  Royal  Assent  to  Bills. 

1.  When  approved  by  governor,  subject  to  veto  of  king 

in  council. 

2.  Reserved  bills. 

3.  Real  extent  of  royal  control  of  legislation. 

III.  The  Committees. 

IV.  Private  and  Public  Bills:    Procedure. 

V.  General  Character  of  the  Legislative  System   (Smith,  170- 
180). 

1.  Character  and  ability  of  members;  effect  of  liberal 
franchise;  of  payment  of  salaries;  tendency  to  local- 
ism ;  effects  of  party. 


CANADA.  99 

2.  Comparison  with  congress  and  with  the  imperial  par- 

liament. 

3.  Relation  to  the  cabinet. 

4.  Disbritution  of  legislative  powers  (sees.  91-92). 

REFERENCES. 

Munro,  110-161;  Bourinot,  How  Canada  is  Governed,  95-127;  idem, 
Const.  Hist.,  57-62,  80  ff.;  idem,  Parliamentary  Government,  339  ff.; 
idem,  Federal  Government,  494  ff.,  549  ff.;  Todd,  Index  at  "Canada," 
"Legislation";  Tarring,  6Q  ff.;  Bourinot,  Comp.  Politics. 


Section  XXXVII.    The  Executive  (sees.  9-16,  54-57). 

I.  The  King,  Acting  Through  the  British  Privy  Council. 

1.  Revision  (veto)  of  bills. 

2.  Appointment  of  governor-general. 

3.  Control  of  military  and  naval  forces. 

II.  The   Governor-General    (sees.    10-14)  :     acting   mainly   on 
advice  of  the  privy  council  for  Canada  (Munro,  162  ff.). 

1.  Creation:    letters-patent,  instructions,  commission. 

2.  Powers  relating  to  parliament. 

a.  Appointment  of  senators. 

Z>.  Appointment  of  speaker  of  senate. 

c.  Summons,  prorogation,  dissolution. 

d.  Recommends  money  bills. 

e.  Assents  to  bills;  veto;  reserved  bills. 

3.  Duties  relating  to  party-government. 

4.  Appointment  and  removal  of  councillors. 

5.  Functions  regarding  the  judicature;  appointment  and 
^  remxoval  of  judges ;  pardon. 

6.  Prerogative    powers:    appointment    of  king^s    counsel; 

of   lieutenant-governors;    disallowance   of   provincial 
bills. 

7.  Responsibility. 

III.  The  King's  Privy  Council  for  Canada:    Appointed  and 
Removed  by  Governor. 

1.  The  cabinet  members. 

a.  Prime  minister :  on  British  model. 
&.  Other  members:   number. 

2.  "Ministers"  as  distinguished  from  cabinet  members. 

IV.  The  Great  Departments  of  State  (see  Munro  and  Bouri- 
not) . 


100  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

V.  The  American,  British,  and  Canadian  Executives  Com- 
pared (see  Smith,  147-162;  Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  162  ff.; 
ideniy  Comparative  Politics  (1890). 

1.  Political  value  of  governor-general's  office? 

2.  Social  value? 

REFERENCES. 

Smith,  Canada  and  Canadian  Question,  147-162;  Tarring,  39  ff.; 
Munro,  162-215;  Dilke,  Problems,  57  ff.;  Todd,  576  ff.,  759  ff.,  and 
Index  at  "Canada,"  "Crown,"  "Governor-General";  Bourinot,  Parlia- 
mentary Govt.,  339-390;  idem,  Federal  Oovt.,  491  ff.,  533  ff.;  idem, 
Comp.  Politics;  idem.  Const.  Hist.,  47,  53  ff.,  154-89  (good  on  min- 
istry) ;  idem.  How  Canada  is  Governed,  64  ff.,  73-91. 


Section  XXXVIII.     The  Canadian  Judicial  System    (sees. 

96-101). 

I.  Judicial  Committee  of  the  (English)  Privy  Council  (Todd, 
301-312). 

1.  The  highest  court  of  appeal  in  colonial  civil  cases. 

2.  Composition  (Todd,  306). 

3.  Appeal  onlv  by  consent  of  the  king  in  council :  that  is, 

of  the  judicial  committee. 

4.  Practical  importance;  its  conservatism  in  use  of  juris- 

diction; highest  tribunal  on  constitutional  questions 
(see  Todd). 

II.  Federal  or  Dominion  Courts. 

1.  The  supreme  court  of  Canada:    created,  1875. 

a.  Composed  of  a  chief  justice  and  five  puisne  judges 
of  whom  at  least  two  must  be  appointed  from 
the  bar  or  bench  of  Quebec  province. 

Z>.  Jurisdiction. 

1)  Court    of    appeal     from    highest   provincial 

courts;  but  it  is  not  the  exclusive  tribunal 
of  appeal,  for  appeals  may  be  taken  from 
some  provincial  courts  directly  to  the  judicial 
committee  of  privy  council ;  and  from  its  de- 
cisions there  is  appeal  to  the  same  body. 

2)  Appeal  in  criminal  cases  only  when  provincial 

judges  uot  unanimous;  appeals  are  allowed 
.     in  contested  elections ;  but  in  neither  of  these 
two  classes  of  cases  are  appeals  to  the  judi- 
cial committee  permitted. 


CANADA.  101 

3)  Questions  submitted  by  the  governor  in  coun- 

cil; and  private  bills  may  be  submitted  for 
an  opinion  by  either  house  of  parliament. 

4)  Constitutional    questions :     Controversies   be- 

tween the  Dominion  and  a  province;  be- 
tween provinces;  validity  of  Dominion  or 
provincial  laws,  etc.;  but  this  jurisdiction 
must  be  authorized  by  provincial  statute 
(see  Munro,  218-19)  ;  question  of  constitu- 
tionality may  in  first  instance  be  raised  in 
any  court,  high  or  low. 

2.  The  exchequer  court. 

a.  Separated  from  the  supreme  court,  1887. 
6.  Jurisdiction:    revenue  cases  or  other  interests  of 
the  crown;  and  in  claims  (Munro,  217). 

3.  Admiralty  court :  how  administered  in  "districts"  ? 

4.  Appointment  and  tenure  of  federal  judges  (Bourinot, 

How  Canada  is  Governed,  132-170 ;  idem.,  Const.  Hist., 
149  fie.;  Munro,  221). 
III.  The  Provincial  Courts. 

1.  The  creation  of  the  provincial  courts. 

a.  The  respective  provinces  have  sole  control  of  the 

constitution,   organization,   and   maintenance   of 

their   civil  and   criminal   courts,   and   power   to 

regulate  civil  procedure. 
6.  The  control  of  criminal  law  and  procedure  belongs 

solely  to  the  Dominion  parliament:   there  is  a 

criminal  code. 

c.  The  Dominion  parliament  may  assign  duties  to  the 

provincial  courts. 

d.  The   Dominion    appoints,    removes,    and    pays    all 

judges  of  the  superior,  district,  and  county 
courts  of  the  provinces,  except  the  probate 
courts  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 

1)  Tenure;  appointments,  how  made. 

2)  Procedure  in  case  of  trial  of  charges  against 

a  judge    (Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  151-3). 

e.  Justices  of  the  peace,  police  judges,  and  stipendiary 

magistrates  are  appointed  by  the  provincial  gov- 
ernments. 


102  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

2.  Qualifications  of  the  various  grades  of  judges  (Bouri- 

not,  Hoio  Canada  is  Governed^  170). 

3.  Varieties  of  courts  in  the  provinces    (Bourinot,  How 

Canada  is  Governed,  177-191;  Munro,  88-109). 
a.  Courts  of  civil  jurisdiction. 
&.  Courts  of  criminal  jurisdiction. 

REFERENCES. 

Munro,  88-109,  206-208,  216-222  (Dominion  courts);  Todd,  301-12, 
319-20,  184,  538-75  (Dominion  courts);  Smith,  183;  Bourinot,  How 
Canada  is  Governed,  62-63,  65-66,  128-132,  170-210;  idem,  Const.  Hist., 
149  ff.;   idem.  Federal  Govt.,  519-524. 


Section  XXXIX.     The  Provincial  and  Local  Govern- 
ments. 

A.     The  Provincial  Constitutions. 

I.  Distribution  of  Legislative  Powers  (sees.  91-92). 

1.  The  question  of  state  sovereignty ;  contrast  of  Canadian 

and  United  States  history  regarding  the  division  of 
powers. 

2.  The  29  groups  of  powers  reserved  to  the  Dominion 

parliament  (sec.  91). 

3.  The  16  groups  of  powers  reserved  to  the  provincial 

legislatures  (sec.  92). 

4.  The  residuum  of  powers  belongs  to  the  Dominion  par- 

liament. 

5.  Decisions  of  the  supreme  court  and  judicial  committee 

on  questions  of  legislative  jurisdiction;  rules  of  con- 
struction (see  examples  in  Bourinot,  Const.  Hist., 
84-142). 

II.  The  Provincial  Executive  (Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  62-65; 
idem,  How  Canada  is  Governed,  147-8) . 

1.  The  lieutenant-governor. 

a.  Appointment   and   dismissal;   term,   practically   5 

years. 
6.  Character  and  functions. 

1)  At    once    represents    king,    Dominion,    and 

province. 

2)  Duties:    executive  and  administrative;   rela- 

tions   to    legislature   and    to   the   executive 
council  (cabinet). 


CANADA.  103 

2.  The   executive    council    (see   lists    in    Bourinot,   How 
Canada  is  Governed^  151-152). 
.  a.  How  appointed. 
&.  Members. 

1)  In  cabinet  with  departments,  6  to  8. 

2)  Without  office  (in  5  provinces),  1  to  6. 

c.  Eelations  of  the  councillors  to  the  provincial  as- 
semblies and  to  the  lieutenant-governor  deter- 
mined b}^  the  usual  cabinet  law  and  custom. 

III.  The  Provincial  Legislatures. 

1.  Bicameral  systems  in  Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia. 

a.  Legislative  councils:  in  Quebec  24  and  in  Nova 
Scotia  21  members  appointed  by  the  crown 
(lieutenant-governor)  for  life;  speaker,  appointed 
by  lieutenant-governor  in  council  during  pleas- 
ure; powers  similar  to  those  of  Dominion  senate. 

6.  Legislative  assemblies :  74  members  in  Quebec,  and 
38  in  Nova  Scotia ;  elected  for  five  years. 

2.  Unicameral  system  in  the  seven  other  provinces   (for 

present  numbers,  see  Stateman^s  Year  Book,  1906, 

p.  497). 
a.  Qualifications   (Munro,  61  ff.) ;  compensation  and 

mileage;  tenure,  4  years. 
&.  Speaker  and  other  officers. 

c.  Public  and  private  bills:  rules  same  as  for  Do- 

minion parliament;  Dominion  power  of  disallow- 
ance (Bourinot,  Const.  Hist.,  142-49). 

d.  Relations  to  prime  minister  and  council  (cabinet)  : 

rules,  same  as  for  Dominion, 
c.  Number    (see  lists  in   Bourinot,   How  Canada  is 
Governed,  159). 

f.  Constitutional    subjects   of   legislation    (sec.    92)  ; 

qualified  control  of  education. 

g.  Elective  franchise  and  election  laws    (similar  to 

those  of  Dominion ;  see  Bourinot,  How  Canada  is 
Governed,  157,  160-1;  Munro,  55-61,  64-6). 

IV.  Provincial  Judicature   (see  preceding  syllabus). 

REFERENCES. 
Munro,   40-87;    Bourinot,   Const.  Hist.,   62-149;    idem,  How   Canada 
is  Governed,  145-169;  Todd,  430-575,  579  ff.,  and  Index. 


104  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

B.     The  Local  Constitutions. 

I.  Origin  and  History,  to  1840   (see  Bourinot,  Local  Govern- 
ment in  Canada^  43-69). 

1.  Under  the  French  regime,  1608-1760. 

2.  Lower  Canada,  1760-1840. 

3.  Upper  Canada,  1760-1840. 

4.  The  maritime  provinces. 

II.  The  Divisions  of  the  Provinces  for  Purposes  of  Local  Gov- 
ernment. 

1.  The  county:   the  largest  municipal  division  in  the  pro- 

vince.   It  has 
a.  Council  composed  of  elected  or  ew  officio  members; 
d.  Warden,  reeve,  or  other  head  officer. 

2.  The  township,   parish,   town,   village,   city    (these  are 

are  sometimes  called  "local  municipalities''). 
a.  Elected  councils. 
6.  Reeve  or  mayor  and  other  officers. 

III.  Local  Constitution  of  Ontario   (as  an  example). 

1.  Counties:   each  with  a  council  composed  of  2  members 

elected  for  2  years  in  each  "division" ;  and  a  warden 
chosen  by  the  council. 

2.  The  council  in  every  city  composed  of  a  mayor  and  3 

aldermen  for  each  ward;  town,  of  a  mayor  and 

3  or  2  councillors  for  each  ward;  township,  of 
a  reeve  and  4  councillors;  village,  of  a  reeve  and 

4  councillors. 

a.  Election  of  councillors,  mayors,  and  reeves  is  by 
general  vote  by  ward. 

&.  By  a  referendum,  the  people  may  establish  election 
of  town  and  city  officers  by  general  vote  (Bouri- 
not.  How  Canada  is  Governed,  222-3). 

3.  Origin  and  general  character  of  the  Ontario  township 

(see  McEvoy). 

IV.  Local  Constitutions  of  the  Other  Provinces. 

REFERENCES. 

Bourinot,  Local  Government  in  Canada,  in  J.  H.  U.  S.  (1887),  VI, 
175-246;  or  the  same  in  Royal  Society  of  Canada  (1886),  IV,  sec.  2, 
and  separately  reprited;  idem.  How  Canada  is  Governed,,  219-240; 
McEvoy,  The  Ontario  Township  (Toronto,  1889). 


CHAPTEE  V. 

ORIGIN    AND    CHARACTER   OP   THE    FEDERAL    CONSTITUTION 
OF  THE  AUSTRALIAN  COMMONWEALTH. 


Section  XL.     Literature  Available  for  the  Course. 

I.  Bibliographies. 

Edwards  (H.  W.),  Movement  for  Federation,  136-38. 

Jenks   (E),  Australasian  Colonies,  320. 

Moore  (W.  H.),  Commonwealth,  p.  xx. 

New  International  Encyclopaedia,  II,  276-77. 

Special  Card  Catalogue  of  the  Department  of  Political  Science  and 
Sociology. 

II.  Geography. 

Lucas  (C.  P.),  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies  (1891). 
Century  Atlas  and  other  standard  atlases. 

Maps  in  Encyclopedia  Americana  and  New  International  Encyclo- 
paedia. 
Maps  in  the  works  of  Jenks,  Finley,  and  Dilke. 

III.  Historical    Manuals    or    Accounts    and    Constitutional 
Treatises. 

Clark  (A.  I.),  Studies  in  Australian  Constitutional  Law   (1907). 

Edwards  (H.  W.),  The  Movement  for  Federation  in  Australia 
(1901).     An  unpublished  thesis;   best  historical  account. 

Favenc,  History  of  Australian  Explorations,  1788-1888    (1892). 

Finney  (Joseph),  History  of  the  Australian  Colonies  (1902).  Use- 
ful general  manual;  many  maps. 

Jenks  (E.),  History  of  the  Australasian  Colonies  (1895).  Reaches 
only  1893;   a  good  work. 

Kirkpatrick  (J.),  "Constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia," in  Juridical  Review,  XII  (1900),  113  ff. 

Larned  (J.  N.),  History  for  Ready  Reference  (1894),  I,  190  fE. 
Good  historical  sketch. 

Moore  (W.  H.),  The  Constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia (1902).  Excellent  scientific  treatise;  practically  an 
annotated  text;  good  historical  account,  pp.  12-61. 

Parkes  (Henry),  Fifty  Years  in  the  Making  of  Australian  History 
(1892). 

Quick  (J.)  and  G^rran  (R.  R.),  Annotated  Constitution  of  the 
Autsralian  Commonwealth  (1901).  The  most  elaborate  treat- 
ise yet  published;   has  full  historical  account,  pp.  23-261. 

Short   Accounts    in   Encyclopedia   Americana,   vol.    II;    and   New 
International  Encyclopaedia,  vol.  II. 
(105) 


k 


106  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

IV.  General  and  Special  Works  of  Importance  for  the  Course. 

Appleton  (pub.),  Annual  Cyclopedia,  for  each  year. 
Bannow   (W.),  The  Colony  of  Victoria  (1897). 
Clark  (V.  S.),  Labour  Movement  in  Australasia  (1907). 
Cotton    (J.    S.)    and   Payne    (B.   J.),   Colonies   and   Dependencies 
(1883). 

Deakin  (A.),  "The  Federation  of  Australia,"  in  Scridner's  Maga- 
zine (1891),  X,  549  ff. 

Dilke   (C.  W.),  Problems  of  Greater  Britain  (1890). 
Dilke    (C.    W.),    "The   Commonwealth    of   Australia,"    in    Forum 
(1891),  XI,  379. 

Egerton  (H.  E.),  8hort  History  of  British  Colonial  Policy  (1897). 
See  Index. 

Epps   (W.),  Land  Systems  of  Australia   (1894). 

Finniss  (B.  T.),  Constitutional  History  of  South  Australia  (1886). 

Flanagan  (R.),  History  of  New  South  Wales  (2  vols.,  1862). 

Galloway   (W.  J.),  Advanced  Australia  (1899). 

Garran  (R.  R.),  Coming  Commonwealth  of  Australia  (1899). 

Greswell  (W.  P.),  British  Colonization  (1893). 

Jenks  (E.),  Government  of  Victoria  (1891). 

Jenkyns  (H.),  British  Rule  and  Jurisdiction  Beyond  the  Seas 
(1902). 

Kohler  (J.),  "Australian  Commonwealth  and  its  Legal  Character," 
in  Zeitschrift  filr  Volkerrecht  und  Bundesstaatsrecht,  I,  Nos. 
2,  3. 

Lauterer  (J.),  Australien  und  Tasmanien  (1900). 
Lewis   (G.  C),  Government  of  Dependencies   (1891). 
Lloyd   (H.  I.),  Newest  England  (1903). 
Morris  (H.  C),  History  of  Colonization  (2  vols.,  1900). 
Parkes   (Henry),  "Union  of  the  Australias,"  in  Contemporary  Re- 
view, July,  1891. 

Reeves  (W.  P.),  State  Experiments  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
(2  vols.,  1902). 

Reid  (G.  H.),  "Commonwealth  of  Australia,"  in  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury (1891),  XXX,  145-153. 

Rowland  (P.  P.),  "Economic  Resources  of  the  Australian  Common- 
wealth," in  Economic  Review,  XII  (1902),  172-184. 

Symon   (J.  H.),  "United  Australia,"  in  Yale  Review   (1900),  IX, 

129-163. 
Tarring  (C.  J.),  Laws  Relating  to  the  Colonies  (2d  ed.,  1893). 
Teece    (R.   C),   Federal   Constitutions   of   Canada  and  Australia 

(1902). 

Todd    (A.),   Parliamentary   Government  in   the  British   Colonies 

(2d  ed.,   1894). 
Turner  (H.  G.),  History  of  the  Colony  of  Victoria  (vol.  I,  1904). 
Walker   (Henry  de  R.),  Australian  Democracy   (1897). 
Willoughby  (H.),  Australian  Federation  (1891). 


AUSTRALIA.  107 

V.  Short  Accounts. 

Anson,  Law  and  Custom,  II,  255;  Statesman's  Year  Book;  Seeley, 
Expansion  of  England;  Lalor,  Cyclopaedia,  III,  13-16;  Jebb, 
Studies  in  Colonial  Nationalism,  Index  at  "Australia"; 
Reinsch,  Colonial  Government;  Payne,  History  of  European 
Colonies;  Bourinot,  "Canada  and  Australia,"  in  Royal  So- 
ciety (1895),  I,  sec.  2;  Ball,  "State  Experiments  in  Australia," 
in  Economic  Review  (1903),  XIII,  870-3;  Barton,  "Australia 
and  Her  Problems,"  in  The  Independent,  LIV  (1902),  2165-67; 
idem,  "Australian  Federation"  (1900),  in  North  Am.  Rev., 
CLXX,  772-4;  Beach,  "The  Australian  Federal  Constitution" 
in  Pol.  Sci.  Quarterly  (1899),  XIV,  663-80;  Braddon, 
"Federation  Movement  in  Australia"  (1896),  in  Nineteenth 
Century,  XL,  156-72;  Brassey,  "Australian  Federation,"  in 
Nineteenth  Century  (1899),  XLV,  548-57;  Burgess,  "Social 
Experiments  in  Australia,"  in  Arena  (1900),  XXIII,  132-40; 
Childers,  "Court  of  Appeal,"  in  Nineteenth  Century  (1901), 
L.,  152-60;  Deakin,  in  Scribner's  (1891),  X,  549-61;  Donovan, 
in  Westminster  Review  (1899),  CLII,  155-65;  Duckworth,  in 
Economic  Journal  (1899),  IX,  322-27;  Fortescue,  in  Nineteenth 
Century  (1891),  XXX,  430-43;  Gelling,  "Municipal  Institutions 
of  Australia,"  in  Annals  of  A.  A.  (1904),  XXIII,  61-73;  Henry, 
in  Outlook  (1901),  LXVIII,  483-6;  Higgins,  in  Contemp.  Rev. 
(1900),  LXXVII,  480-90;  Hogan,  in  ibid.  (1901),  LXXX,  657- 
65;  Holder,  in  Independent  (1904),  LVI,  9-13;  Lusk,  in  Re- 
view of  Reviews  (1901),  XXIII,  74-7;  idem,  in  N.  A.  Rev. 
(1904),  CLXXVIII.  598-604;  idem,  "Chinese  Exclusion  in  Aus- 
tralia," in  iMd.,  CLXXIV,  368-75;  idem,  "The  First  Parlia- 
ment of  Australia,"  in  Review  of  Reviews  (1903),  XXVII, 
333-38;  Macnaughten,  in  Economic  Review  (1903),  XIII,  286- 
94;  Mann,  "Political  and  Industrial  Situation  in  Australia," 
in  Nineteenth  Century  (1904),  LVI,  475-91;  Moore,  in  Law 
Quarterly  Review  (1900),  XVII,  35-43;  idem,  in  Annals  of  A. 
A.  (1903),  XXI,  183-208;  Parsons,  "The  Privy  Council,"  in 
Blackwood's,  XVI,  687-701;  many  articles  in  Spectator,  Sat- 
urday Revietv,  Melbourne  Review,  and  Victorian  Review;  and 
others  mentioned  in  the  Special  Card  Catalogue. 

VI.  Selected  Sources  and  Serial  Publications. 

Australian  Comomn wealth  and  States,  Court  Reports  (State  Li- 
brary). 

Australian   States,   Statutes    (State  Library). 

Australian  Federal  Convention,  Official  Report  of  Debates,  First, 
Second,  and  Third  Sessions  (Report  of  Second  Session  in 
State  Library). 

Australian  Handbook.     Published   annually   since   1873. 

Federal  Council  of  Australasia,  Official  Record  of  Debates,  First 
Session    (1886). 

Great  Britain,  Parliamentary  Papers,  Hansard's  Debates,  General 
Statutes. 

Melbourne  Argus.    Published  daily  since  1854. 

Melbourne  Review.     Published  since  1880. 

National  Australasian  Convention,  Official  Record  of  Debates 
(1891). 


108  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

South  Australia,  Parliamentary  Debates,  1857-1907. 

Victorian  Review.     Published  since  1880. 

Year  Book  of  Australia,   edited   by  Edward  Greville.     Published 

annually  since  1885  under  auspices  of  the  Governments  of  the 

Colonies. 

Section  XLI.     Discovery^  Exploration,  and  Colonization  op 
Australia,  to  1788. 

I.  Discovery    (Jenks,    Australasian    Colonies ^    1-19;    Finney, 
3-14;  Edwards,  1  ff . ;  Quick  and  Gar  ran,  6  ff.,  23  ff.). 

1.  Early  knowledge  and  belief  regarding  Australia. 

a.  Legend  and  rumor. 

t.  Maps :  the  Rotz  map,  1542 ;  the  Testu  map  of  Jave 

la  Gra/ivde,  1555. 
c.  The  book  of  Cornelius  Wytfliet,  1598:   the  name 

Terra  Australis;  the  name  Australasia,  invented 

by  Brosses,  ca.  1750. 

2.  The  Spanish  discovery,  1606. 

«.  Mendana  reaches  Santa  Cruz  group   (1595). 

6.  His  pilot,  Quiros,  reaches  the  New  Hebrides,  one  of 

which  he  calls  Austral  del  Espiritu  Santo  (1605). 
c.  Quiros's    lieutenant,    Torres,    coasts    along    New 

Guinea,  reaches  11th  degree,  and  probably  sighted 

the  Australian  continent  (1606). 

3.  The  Dutch  discovery,  1606?— 1642  (New  Holland). 

a.  Traditional  discovery  by  the  Duyfhen  (1606). 
J).  By  Dirk  Hartog  in  the  ship  Eendracht  (1616),  at 
Shark  Bay. 

c.  Other  voyages,  1623,  1628. 

d.  Discoveries  of  Abel  Janz  Tasman  (1642)  :  Tas- 
mania (Van  Dieman's  land  until  1853),  November 
24;  New  Zealand,  December  13  (called  by  him 
Staates  Land)  ;  other  islands. 

4.  English  discoveries. 

a.  By    Dampier:     Australia    (New    Holland),    1689, 

1699. 
ft.  Captain  James  Cook:  New  Zealand,  August,  1769; 

Botany  Bay,  Australia,  autumn,  1770;  he  names 

New  South  Wales;  his  two  later  voyages,  1772, 

1776-9. 

II.  Characteristics  of  Australia. 

1.  Soil  and  climate. 


AUSTRALIA.  109 

2.  Fauna  and  flora ;  why  British  economy  was  reproduced  ? 

3.  Character  of  the  aborigines. 

4.  Contrasting  character  of  New  Zealand  climate,  geog- 

raphy, fauna,  flora,  and  aborigines. 


Section  XLII.  The  Founding  of  the  Australasian  Colonies. 

I.  New  South  Wales,  1788-1851  (Jenks,  20-51;  Quick  and  Gar- 
ran,  35  ff.;  Finney,  16  ff.). 

1.  The   penal    colony    established    under   Captain    (later 

Governor)    Phillip   at    Port   Jackson    (Sydney), 

near  Botany  Bay,  1788. 
a.  Earlier   history   of   the   British   ''transportation" 

system ;  the  inquiry  of  1779 ;  the  act  of  1783 ;  and 

the  orders  of  1786. 
6.  The  penal  settlement  due  mainly  to  the  government 

and  not  to  private  suggestion  (Jenks,  20-26). 

c.  Incidents  in  the  history  of  the  colony  to  1821. 

d.  General  history  to  1851. 

2.  Development  of  institutions  (Jenks,  52-71,  139-165). 

a.  The  governor,  under  the  colonial  office,  practically 
the  sole  authority  until  1823;  "crown 
colony"  (Jenks,  147). 

1)  Military  court  of  judge  advocate  and  6  as- 

sessors; other  courts. 

2)  Civil  courts,  1814;  influence  of  Baron  Field. 

3)  Rise  of  an  executive  council,  appointed  by  the 

governor;  date  of  origin  uncertain. 
l.  The  constitution  of  1823. 

1)  Supreme   courts   for   New   South   Wales   and 

Tasmania;  also  courts  of  quarter  sessions 
and  other  courts;  jury  in  civil  suits; 
anomalous  court  of  appeal. 

2)  Legislative  council  of  5  to  7  appointed  by  the 

colonial  office,  with  restricted  financial  and 
legislative  powers;  1825,  3  independent  (non- 
official)  members  admitted. 

3)  Partial  separation  of  Tasmania. 

c.  The  constitution  of  1828 :  for  the  2  colonies  of  New 
South  Wales  and  Tasmania. 
1)  Appeals  to  privy  council  allowed;  new  circuit 


110  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

courts;  local  legislatures  allowed  to  extend 
jury  to  criminal  suits. 

2)  Legislative  council  enlarged  to  15;  executive 

council  gains  new  powers ;  chief  justice  loses 
absolute  veto  on  ordinances. 

3)  Beginnings    of    subordinate    governments    in 

Victoria  (at  Melbourne)  Western  Australia, 
and  South  Australia,  1828-1839. 

d.  Constitution  of  1842  (only  for  New  South  Wales). 

1)  Representation  in  legislative  councils  to  con- 

sist of  two  classes  of  members. 

2)  Provisions  for  local  government. 

e.  Act  of  1850:    practically  places  South  Australia, 

Tasmania,  and  Victoria  on  same  basis  as  New 
South  Wales  by  act  of  1842;  attempt  of  colonial 
office  to  make  the  governor  of  New  South  Wales 
a  "governor-general"  for  the  three  other  colonies 
(to  1855). 

II.  Tasmania,  1798-1851. 

1.  Explorations;  founding  of  Hobart,  1804;  of  Launces- 

ton,  1806.      . 

2.  Subordinate  to  New  South  Wales  until  made  a  separate 

colony,  1825. 

III.  Victoria. 

1.  Melbourne  founded,  1836-7. 

2.  Port  Phillip  district  under  New  South  Wales,  1839. 

3.  Separate  colony,  1850. 

IV.  Queensland,  separate  colony,  1859. 

V.  New  Zealand. 

1.  Early  history. 

2.  Colony,  1840. 

VI.  South  Australia. 

1.  Exploration  and  early  history;  colony  founded  1836. 

2.  Separate  colony,  with  Adelaide  as  capital,  1850. 

VII.  Western  Australia. 

1.  Founded,  1829. 

2.  Representative  institutions,  1870. 

3.  Responsible   government,    with   bicameral   parliament, 

1890. 


AUSTRALIA.  Ill 

REFERENCES. 

Jenks,  Australasian  Colonies,  as  cited;  Edwards,  1-4;  Finney,  see 
table  of  contents;  Quick  and  Garran,  35-78;  Jenks,  Government  of 
Victoria;  Finniss,  Const.  Hist,  of  South  Australia;  Todd,  Index;  "New 
International  Encyclopaedia,  at  "Australia,"  and  name  of  each  colony; 
Larned,  in  History  for  Ready  Reference,  I;  Moore,  12-18;  Flanagan, 
New  South  Wales.    See  also  the  works  of  Favenc  and  Morris. 


Section  XLIII.     The  Movement  for  Federation,  1846-1890. 

I.  Earl  Grey  and  the  Origin  of  the  Movement  (Edwards,  5-15; 
Jenks,  294-300;  Quick  and  Garran,  81  ff.;  Moore,  19  ff.). 

1.  The  tariff  problem;  suggestion  of  Governor  Fitzroy  of 

New  South  Wales,  1846;  a  "superior  functionary" 
to  be  created. 

2.  Earl  Grey's  dispatch  to  Governor  Fitzroy,  1847 ;  recom- 

mends a  "central  authority"  in  the  colonies  and  a 
change  in  the  constitution  of  N.  S.  W.  (Pari.  Papers^ 
1847-8,  XLII,  No.  715;  Edwards,  5-7). 

3.  Protesting  petition  of  the  people  of  Sydney. 

4.  Grey's  dispatch  of  July  31,  1849. 

5.  Report    of    the    committee    for  trade  and  plantations 

{Pari  Papers,  1849,  XXV,  33;  Jenks,  294;  Edwards, 
7;  Quick  and  Garran,  83;  Moore,  20). 

6.  The  federal  constitution  bill  of  1850. 

a.  Contents;  plan  for  representation;  Gladstones  op- 
position to  the  scheme. 

6.  Why  federal  clauses  rejected  by  parliament  and 
disliked  in  Australia?  Character  of  the  amended 
act  adopted;  why  called  'Magna  Charta  of  Aus- 
tralia"? (Kirpatrick,  in  Juridical  Review,  XII, 
114;  Edwards,  12.) 

c.  New  colony  of  Victoria  (1850)  adopts  policy  of 
"protection":  evil   results?      (See  Finney,  212.) 

7.  Executive  union  under  a  governor-general  authorized 

by  a  commission  of  Earl  Grey  (1851-1861),  following 
Fitzroy's  suggestion  of  1846  (see  Jenks,  Victoria, 
155-6;  idem,  Colonies,  295;  Moore  21-2;  Quick  and 
Garran,  89-90). 

II.  Development  of  Federal  Sentiment  in  the  Colonies,  1853- 
1863 :   the  Movement  Confined  Mainly  to  a  Few  Leaders. 

1.  In  New  South  Wales. 


112  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

a.  1853,  select,  legislative  committee  on  new  constitu- 
tion recommends  a  general  assembly:  Went- 
worth's  influence  in  favor;  why  the  scheme  a 
failure? 

1).  1856:  Secretary  Deas-Thomson  proposes  in  a 
speech. 

c.  1857,  August  19,  legislative  council  appoints  a 
committee  on  establishment  of  a  federal  legisla- 
ture; report  of  committee,  October  20;  council 
proposes  a  conference;  joint  meeting  of  the  two 
houses  of  the  legislature   (Edwards,  19-20). 

2.  In  Victoria. 

a.  1853:  legislative  committee  on  new  constitution 
favors;  Duffy's  influence. 

6.  1857,  January  16,  Gavan  Duffy  secures  a  select 
committee  on  federal  union;  the  committee's 
report,  adopted  by  both  houses,  recommends  a 
colonial  conference  (see  extract  in  Edwards,  18, 
note;  Quick  and  Garran,  95  ff. ;  Moore,  24). 

3.  Wentworth's  memorial  for  the  ^'General  Association" 

(in  England)  on  permissive  principle  recommending 
a  federal  assembly  with  equal  colonial  representa- 
tion; permissive  constitutional  convention;  opposi- 
tion of  British  colonial  secretary  (Moore,  23;  Quick 
and  Garran,  93-95;  Edwards,  17-18). 

4.  Action    in    South    Australia     (1859-60)  ;     Queensland 

(1860)  ;  Tasmania  (1862)  :  failure  of  the  entire 
movement  for  a  conference  (Moore,  25). 

5.  Dr.  J.  D.  Lang  and  the  independence  party :   his  books, 

1852,    1870;    he   secures   legislative   committee,    1860 
(Edwards,  22-3). 
III.  Continuation  of  the  Movement  Through  Colonial  Confer- 
ences, 1863-1883  (Edwards,  24-34;  Moore,  25-30;  Quick  and 
Garran,  100  ff.). 

1.  Struggle  to  overcome  tariff  diffculties;  the  movement 

thus  fostered  (Quick  and  Garran  100  ff.). 

2.  Conference  of  1863   (in  Melbourne). 

3.  Postal  conference,  1867  (in  Melbourne). 

a.  Federal  council  suggested. 

6.  Sir  Henry  Parkes's  bill  in  the  legislative  assembly, 
N.  S.  W. 


AUSTRALIA.  113 

4.  Conference  of  1870. 

5.  Victorian  Royal  Commission,  1870. 

a.  Purpose  (Moore,  27). 
1).  Report. 

6.  Conference  of  1880-81  (Quick  and  Garran,  107-9;  Jenks, 

Colonies,  296-7). 

7.  General  results  of  the  conferences;  the  press  and  fed- 

eration; why  federation  was  delayed. 
IV.  The  Federal  Council,  1885  (Edwards,  35-56;  Dilke,  Proh- 
lems,  264,  228 ;  Parkes,  Fifty  Years,  I,  589 ;  Quick  and  Gar- 
ran,  109-115;  Moore,  37  ff.;  Jenks,  295-7). 

1.  Events  leading  to  the  movement  for  a  council. 

a.  France  and  the  penal  colony  of  New  Caledonia; 

suspicion  of  Germany. 
6.  Queensland  formally  takes  possession  of  southern 

'  New  Guinea,  April  4,  1883. 
c.  Lord   Derby   repudiates   Queensland's   action   and 

suggests  union. 

2.  The  convention  of  delegates  at  Sydney,  November,  1883. 

a.  Draft-bill  for  a  federal  council  adopted. 
1).  Popular  discussion  and  criticism. 

c.  Favored  by  legislatures  of  all  colonies  except  New 

Zealand   and   New    South   Wales;  opposition  of 
Parkes. 

d.  Lord  Derby's  conciliatory  letter  of  explanation. 

3.  Imperial  act  establishing  a  council,  1885. 

a.  Substance  of  the  act ;  powers  of  the  council. 
6.  By  what  colonies  accepted. 

4.  Number  of  sessions  and  the  work  accomplished  by  the 

council. 
a.  Weakness  of  the  body. 
1).  Value  of  the  experiment. 

Section  XLIV.     The  Defense  Problem  and  the  Conference 
OF  1890  (Edwards,  57-74). 

I.  Character  of  the  Problem. 

1.  Alleged  danger  from  Australia's  isolated  and  exposed 

position. 

2.  Scheme   proposed   by   conference   of   Australian    dele- 

gates in  London,  1887. 
8 


114  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

3.  This  scheme  embodied  in  the  act  of  51  and  52  Victoria, 

chap.  32;  substance;  Queensland  fails  to  agree  (Dilke, 
Problems,  269). 

4.  The  investigation   and  report  by   General   Bevan   Ed- 

wards, 1889 :  he  recommends  federation. 
II.  The  Melbourne  Conference  of  February,  1890. 

1.  Origin :    influence  of  General  Edwards's  recommenda- 

tion ;  Sir  Henry  Parkes's  Invitation  to  other  premiers ; 
popular  discussion. 

2.  Composed    of    members    of    the    federal    council    and 

deputies   from    colonies    not   thus   represented;    high 
character  of  the  body, 

3.  Organization;  motion  of  Parkes   (February  10). 

4.  The  debates:    speeches  of  Griffith,   Deakin,   Playford, 

and  Parkes;  objections  by  the  opposition;  tendencies 
as  to  type  of  constitution  needed. 

5.  The  conference  provides  for  the  call  of  a  national  con- 

vention. 

a.  Choice  of  delegates  by  the  provincial  legislatures; 
the  opposition  in  N.  S.  W.,  led  by  the  "irreconcil- 
able," George  R.  Dibbs. 

6.  Discussions  pending  the  meeting;  Parkes's  resolu- 
tions outlining  principles  of  the  proposed  con- 
stitution. 

REFERENCES. 
Edwards,  57-74;    Quick  and  Garran,  115-123;   Moore,  39  ff.;    Jenks, 
Australasian  Colonies,  297-98;  Parkes,  Fifty  Years,  II,  337  ff.;  Garran, 
Coming  Commonwealth,  115  ff. 

Section  XLV.     The  National  Australasian  Convention  and 
THE  Constitution  op  1891  (March  2  to  April  9). 

I.  Composition  •  and     Organization :      45     Members     from     7 
Colonies. 

1.  Character  of  the  members. 

2.  Leaders;  Dibbs  and  the  opposition. 

3.  Parkes  chosen  president,  and  Griffith  vice-president. 

4.  Debates  to  be  open  to  public. 

II.  Parties  and  Antagonisms. 

1.  Federalists  vs.  antifederalists. 

2.  Small  states  vs.  large  states. 

3.  Protectionists  vs.  free-traders. 


AUSTRALIA.  115 

III.  Plan  for  a  Constitution  Presented  in  Resolutions  by  Sir 
Henry  Parkes  (Quick  and  Garran,  124-5). 

1.  Principles. 

2.  Organization. 

IV.  The  Debates  (Quick  and  Garran,  126-143). 

1.  Preliminary  discussion;  chief  points  of  criticism;  what 

model  for  the  upper  house? 

2.  Discussion  in  the  committee  of  the  whole. 

a.  Powers  of  colonies  (states). 

&.  Customs-duties. 

c.  The  great  compromise  on  powers  and  constitution 
of  the  senate;  the  convention  in  danger  of  dis- 
ruption. 

a    The  executive:  Baker's  amendment  adopted. 

e.  The  judiciary :  the  question  of  appeal  to  the  privy 

council. 

f.  March  18,  reference  of  the  amended  resolutions  to 

three  committees. 

g.  March    31,    the    draft-bill    reported;    the    debate 

thereon. 

1)  The  name  "Commonwealth." 

2)  Election  of  senators  by  legislatures. 

3)  The  "single  vote." 

4)  Relative  powers  of  the  houses;  Baker's  amend- 

ment; Dibbs's  speech. 

5)  The    judiciary;    question    of    courts    for    in- 

dustrial arbitration;  appeals  to  privy 
council. 

6)  Surplus  revenue. 

7)  Assumption  of  state  debts. 

8)  Communication  between  states  and  home  gov- 

ernment. 

9)  Appointment  of  state  governors. 

10)  Amendments :    referendum  rejected. 

11)  Adoption  of  the  amended  draft,  April  9;  pro- 

visions for  submission  to  people;  and  for 
recommendation  of  a  constitutional  act  by 
imperial  parliament. 

V.  Principal  Features  of  the  Constitution  of  1891  (Edwards, 
105-114). 

1.  The  Legislature. 


116  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

a.  Composition   of   the   senate   and   house;   term   of 

office;  franchise;  relative  powers,  etc. 
&.  Powers  of  parliament. 

2.  The  executive. 

a.  Governor-general. 
6.  Executive  council. 
c.  Ministers. 

3.  Supreme  court;  other  courts  to  be  created  by  the  fed- 

eral parliament. 

4.  Relative  powers  of  states  and  federal  government. 

5.  Amendments. 

6.  General  character  of  the  instrument;  relative  influence 

of  Canada,  Switzerland,  and  United  States. 

7.  Original  features. 

REFERENCES. 
Edwards,  75-114;  Quick  and  Garran,  123-143;  Moore,  40  fE.;  Jenks, 
Colonies,  298-300;  idem,  Victoria,  269  ff.;  Parkes,  Fifty  Years,  II,  338  fE.; 
Braddon,  in  Nineteenth  Century  (1896),  XL,  156-72;  Willoughby, 
in  ibid.,  XXX,  292-302;  Cameron,  in  Forum  (1891),  XI,  250-57;  Deakin, 
in  Scribner's  (1891),  X,  549-61;  Dilke,  in  Forum  (1891),  XI,  379-97; 
Duffy,  in  Contemporary  Review  (1890),  LVII,  153-169;  Fortescue,  in 
Nineteenth  Century  (1891),  XXIX,  523-37;  Reid,  in  iMd.,  XXX,  145- 
53;  Parkes,  in  Contemporary  Review  (1891),  LX,  1  ff.;  Salmon,  in 
Fortnightly  Review  (1895),  LXIV,  67-77;  Galloway,  Advanced  Aus- 
tralia, 149  ff.;  Reeves,  II,  143  ff.;  Garran,  Coming  Commonwealth, 
115  ff.;  Walker,  Australian  Democracy,  Index. 

Section  XLVI.     The  Triumph  of  the  Federal  Movement, 

1891-1901. 

I.  Action  on  the  Draft  Constitution  of  1891. 

1.  Failure  of  all  the  legislatures  to  approve. 

a.  Not  introduced  in  the  parliaments  of  Western  Aus- 
tralia, Queensland,  and  New  Zealand. 

6.  Defeated  in  the  parliaments  of  South  Australia, 
Tasmania,  and  Victoria. 

c.  G.  H.  Keid  prevents  its  introduction  in  N.  S.  W. 

2.  Reasons   for   the   failure:     mainly   due   to   a   lack   of 

popular  interest;  not  demanded  by  public  opinion 
(see  Parkes,  Fifty  Years,  II;  Deakin,  in  Scrihner'S) 
X,  561;  Dilke,  in  Forum,  XI,  393;  Edwards,  117-120). 

II.  How  the  Movement  Was  Revived   (Edwards,  121  ff.)  ;  it 
spreads  to  the  people. 

1.  Educative  influence  of  the  constitution  and  debates  of 
1891. 


AUSTRALIA.  117 

2.  Increasing  relative  influence  of  the  native  Australians. 

a.  "Australian  Natives  Association"  favors  federa- 
tion. 

6.  Local  "federation  leagues"  in  a  conference  demand 
a  federal  constitution  to  be  formed  by  a  popularly 
elected  convention,  and  submitted  to  a  direct 
vote  of  the  people  (1893). 

3.  Premier  G.  H.  Reid  (N.  S.  W.)  secures  a  conference  of 

premiers,  1895. 

a.  This  calls  a  constitutional  convention  of  delegates 
to  be  chosen  by  the  electors. 

&.  Agrees  to  a  draft  enabling  act,  to  be  introduced  in 
each  parliament. 

c.  Five  parliaments  provide  for  the  choice  of  dele- 
gates. 

4.  Influence   of   the   "People's   Federal    Convention"    at 

Bathurst,  1896. 

III.  The  Federal  Convention  of  March  22,  1897-March  17, 
1898  (Quick  and  Garran,  165  ff.;  Edwards,  124-33;  Moore, 
45  ff.). 

1.  Composed  of  50  delegates  from  5  colonies;  Queensland 

and  New  Zealand  not  being  represented. 
a.  Character  of  the  members. 
&.  Increased  number  of  jurists. 

2.  Organization. 

3.  The  first  session  at  Adelaide,  March  22-May  5,  1897; 

a  constitution  drafted;  after  adjournment,  it  was  dis- 
cussed and  amended  by  the  parliaments ;  fear  of  dead- 
lock, if  federal  senators  chosen  directly  by  the  people. 

4.  The  second  session  at  Sydney,  September  2-24,  1897. 

a.  Amendments  discussed  (286  in  number). 

6.  Compromise  agreement  to  prevent  deadlock  be- 
tween senate  and  house  (Quick  and  Garran, 
189  ff.). 

5.  The  third  session  at  Melbourne,  January  20-March  17, 

1898  (Quick  and  Garran,  194  ff.). 
a.  Final  compromise  as  to  deadlock. 
6.  Constitution  completed  for  the  referendum. 

IV.  The  First  Referendum,  1898. 

1.  Various     antagonisms     developed.       Compared     with 
American  struggle  in  1788. 


118  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

2.  Constitution  carried  in  Victoria,  Tasmania,  and  South 

Australia;  failed  of  necessary  80,000  in  N.   S.  W.; 
Western  Australia  took  no  vote. 

3.  The  struggle  in  N.  S.  W.  parliament  (Quick  and  Gar- 

ran,  213  ff.). 

a.  Amendments  proposed;   accepted  in  a  conference 

of  premiers  held  January  28,  1899 ;  provision  for 

a  second  referendum  (Quick  and  Garran,  218  ff.)- 
&.  Legislative    council    refuses    assent    to    work    of 

premiers  and  is  swamped  by  creation  of  12  new 

members. 

V.  The  Second  Referendum,  1899  (Quick  and  Garran,  221-28). 

1.  Constitution  carried  by  5  colonies,  including  Queens- 

land. 

2.  Not  submitted  in  Western  Australia ;  petition  of  23,000 

people  of  Eastern  Goldfields  to  be  made  a  separate 
colony. 

3.  Australian  delegates  invited  to  England  by  the  colonial 

secretary. 

VI.  The  "Commonwealth  of  Australia  Constitutional  Act" 
Passed  by  the  Imperial  Parliament,  July  9,  1900,  63  and  64 
Victoria,  chap.  12  (Quick  and  Garran,  228-52). 

1.  Secretary  Chamberlain's  objections  to  three  principal 

points. 

2.  Finally  he  accepts  a  provision  for  restricted  right  of 

appeal  to  privy  council. 

3.  July  19,   1900,  Earl  Hopetoun  appointed  first  gover- 

nor-general; Edmund  Barton,  N.  S.  W.,  becomes  first 
premier. 

4.  January   1,   1901,  the  "Commonwealth   of   Australia" 

formally  inaugurated. 

VII.  The  Most  Characteristic  Features  of  the  Australian  Con- 
stitution. 

REFERENCES. 

Quick  and  Garran,  Parkes,  Edwards,  Moore,  and  Garran,  Coming 
Commonwealth;  Symon,  in  Yale  Review,  IX^  129-63;  Walker,  in  At- 
lantic, LXXXITI  (1899),  577-85;  Vogel,  in  Contemp.  Review,  LXXIV, 
275-79;  Stout,  in  Forum,  XXX,  321-31;  "Status  of  Aust.  Fed.,"  in 
Nation,  LXX,  374-5;  "The  Aust.  Commonwealth  and  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil," in  Spectator,  LXXXIV,  542-43;  compare  iMd.,  693-94;  "The  Federa- 
tion of  Australia,"  in  Sat  Rev.,  LXXXVII,  516-17;  Russell  in  N.  A. 
Rev.,  CLXVII,  27-38;  Lusk,  in  iUd.,  CLXXII,  103-12;  idem,  in  Rev.  of 
Rev.,   XXII,   72-74;    Posnett,   in  Fort.  Rev.,  LXXV,   969-88;    Parsons, 


AUSTRALIA.  119 

"Commionwealth  and  the  Privy  Council,"  in  Blackwoods,CIJKVl  (1899), 
687-701;  idem,  in  Fort.  Rev.,  LXXII,  612-21;  Moore,  in  Law  Quarterly 
Rev.,  XVI,  35-43;  Lusk,  "First  Parliament  of  Australia,"  in  Rev.  of 
Rev.,  XXVII  (1903),  333-38;  idem,  "Second  Par.,"  in  N.  A.  Rev., 
CLXXVIII,  597-604;  idem,  in  Forum  (1899-1900),  XXVIII,  482-92; 
idem,  in  Rev.  of  Rev.,  XXIII,  74-77;  Hogan,  in  Gontemp.  Rev,,  LXXX, 
657-65;  Higgins,  in  iUd.,  LXXVII,  480-90;  Henry,  in  Outlook,  KXVIII, 
483-86;  Gfodkin,  in  Atlantic,  LXXXI,  322-36;  Fortescue,  in  Nineteenth 
Century  (1891),  XXX,  430-45;  Fetchett,  "Failure  of  the  Aust.  Fed. 
Bill,"  in  Canadian  Magazine,  XI,  400-408;  Duckwood,  "Economic  As- 
pect of  Aust.  Fed./'  in  Economic  Journal  (1899),  IX,  322-27;  Donovan, 
"Queensland  Politics  and  Federation,"  in  Westminster  Rev.  (1899), 
CLII,  155-65;  Nation,  LXIV,  453-55,  LXVI,  378-79;  Childers,  "What 
Court  of  Appeal,"  in  Nineteenth  Century,  L,  152-60;  Brassey,  in 
ibid.,  XLV,  548-57;  Beach,  in  Pol.  Sci.  Quarterly,  XIV,  663-80;  Barton, 
in  N.  A.  Rev.,  CLXX,  772-84. 


Section  XLVII.  General  Character  of  the  Constitution 
OP  the  Australian  Commonwealth  :  The  "Constitution 
Act''  (63  and  64  Victoria,  chap.  12). 

I.  Influence  of  Other  Federal  Constitutions. 

1.  Switzerland:  form  or  subdivision  of  the  written  instru- 

ment; preamble;  state  ownership  and  control;   con- 
stitutional referendum. 

2.  Dominion   of   Canada:    relatively   little   influence;   its 

centralization  disliked. 

3.  United  States:  the  tripartite  division  of  departments; 

great  influence  of  the  American  constitution  on  the 
form,  principles,  and  details,  but  notable  differences. 

II.  Plan  and  Scope  of  the  "Constitution  Act"  (Moore,  62-81; 
Quick  and  Garran,  262-383). 

1.  Preliminary  provisions. 

a.  The  preamble:    function  of  the  preamble;  God  in 
the  constitution;  meaning  of  "under  the  crown" 
(Moore,    73-74;    Quick    and    Garran,    294-296); 
meaning  of  the  "people  have  agreed  to  unite"; 
sources  of  sovereignty;  the  term  "indissoluble"; 
the  8  "affirmations"  (Todd,  243;  Quick  and  Gar- 
ran, 286 ;  Moore,  77) . 
h.  The  nine   "covering   clauses" :    alterable   only   by 
imperial  parliament;  while  the  constitution 
proper    (the  128   sections   of  clause  9)    are 
alterable     by     the     Commonwealth   (Moore, 
62  ff.). 


120  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

1)  The    term    "commonwealth";    meaning;   am- 

biguities; why  adopted? 

2)  The  term  "state";  meaning;  ambiguities. 

G.  Supremacy  of  the  federal  constitution  and  federal 
laws,  the  laws  of  any  state  "notwithstanding" 
(clause  51;  compare  original  form  of  article  6, 
Const,  of  U.  S.  (Quick  and  Garran,  346;  Moore, 
81,  note). 

d.  The  term  "constitution" ;  relation  to  constitutional 
law;  to  custom  or  the  unwritten  constitution 
(Moore,  78  ff.)  ;  legislative  powers  of  a  colony 
and  of  the  commonwealth  compared  (Moore,  78- 
81;  Quick  and  Garran,  314). 

2.  Chapter  I.     The  Parliament  (sees.  1-60). 

a.  Part  I.     General  (sees.  1-6). 

&.  Part  II.    The  Senate  (sees.  7-23). 

a  Part  III.  House  of  Representatives   (sees.  24-40). 

d.  Part  IV.     Both  Houses  (sees.  41-50). 

6,  Part  V.     Power  of  the  Parliament  (sees.  51-60). 

3.  Chapter  II.     The  Executive  Government  (61-70). 

4.  Chap.  III.     The  Judicature   (sees.  71-80). 

5.  Chap.  IV.  Finance  and  Trade  (Sees.  81-105). 

6.  Chap.  V.     The  States  (sees.  106-20). 

7.  Chap.  VI.  New  States  (sees.  121-124). 

8.  Chap.  VII.     Miscellaneous  (sees.  125-127). 

9.  Chap.    VIII.     Alternation    of   the    Constitution    (sec. 

128). 

TEXT   OF  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

Moore,   333-361;    Quick  and   Garran,  262-278    (the  clauses   are  also 
successively  repeated  in  the  discussion  throughout  the  treatise). 

Section  XLVIII.     The  Parliament  of  the  Commonwealth. 

A.     The    King:    Represented    hy    the    Governor-General    Ap- 
pointed hy  the  King  (sees.  1-6). 

I.  Parliamentary  Powers  of  the  Governor- General  (Quick  and 
Garran,  404-5). 

II.  Salary :  10,000  pounds. 

B.     The  Senate  (sees.  7-23). 
I.  Composition. 

1.  An   equal    number   from   each   original   state   directly 


AUSTRALIA.  121 

chosen  by  the  people;  voting  as  one  electorate  until 
parliament  otherwise  provides. 

2.  Now  6  senators  from  each  state;  but  parliament  may 

increase  or  diminish  the  number. 

3.  Vacancies,  how  filled. 

a.  Temporarily  by  legislature,  or  by  governor  with 

advice  of  the  executive  council. 
Zj.  Permanently  by  election. 

II.  Tenure. 

1.  Six  years;  but  parliament  may  be  earlier  dissolved  in 

case  of  deadlock. 

2.  The  original  division  of  the  senators  of  each  state  into 

two  classes,  to  hold  3  and  6  years  respectively. 

3.  Vacancy :   for  absence  two  consecutive  months  without 

permission;  by  resignation. 

III.  Qualifications  of  Senators:   The  Same  as  for  Members  of 
the  House. 

IV.  Qualifications  of  Electors  of  Senators. 

1.  The  same  as  fixed  by  the  constitution  or  by  the  federal 

parliament  for  members  of  the  house. 

2.  At  present,  therefore,  the  qualifications  are  those  of 

lower  house  of  the  state  legislature ;  but  parliament 
may  alter. 

V.  Choice  of  Senators. 

1.  Parliament  may  establish  a  uniform  method. 

2.  Temporarily  the  laws  of  the  states  relating  to  choice 

of  members  of  the  lower  house  of  legislature  to  pre- 
vail. 

3.  State  may  make  laws  regarding  mode  of  election,  sub- 

ject to  the  general  federal  acts. 

VI.  Senate  May  Elect  a  Member  to  be  President  of  the  Body. 

1.  Vacancy   of   presidential    office  by   resignation;    when 

holder  ceases  to  be  a  senator;  when  removed  by  vote. 

2.  Place,  how  supplied? 

VII.  Quorum,  One- third  of  Whole  Number;  but  parliament 
may  determine;  questions  determined  by  majority  vote, 
each  senator  having  one  vote ;  and  the  president  may  vote  on 
all  questions;  a  tie  counts  as  a  negative. 

VIII.  Powers  of  the  Senate. 
1.  In  what  functions  they  are  coordinate  with  those  of  the 

house? 


122  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

2.  Restrictions  as  to  money  bills. 

3.  Relative  strength  and  dignity  of  the  senate  as  com- 

pared with  those  of  other  federal  systems. 

G.     House  of  Representatives   (sees.  24-40). 
See  Quick  and  GarraH,  265-7,  445-83;  Moore,  101-113. 

I.  Composition. 

1.  Members  ''directly  chosen  by  the  people  of  the  corn- 

wealth/'  the  number  as  "nearly  as  practicable'^ 

to  be  twice  that  of  the  senators. 
a.  Significance  of  the  two  clauses  quoted;   compare 

the  U.  S.  constitutional  provisions. 
6.  Number  of  representatives  for  several  states  to  be 

in  proportion  to  the  population;  but  each  shall 

have  at  least  5  members. 

c.  How  the  number  is  determined ;  the  "quota"  (Quick 

and  Garran,  265,  453-55). 

d.  Parliament  "under  the  constitution"  has  power  to 

alter  the  number  (sec.  27) . 

2.  When  enumeration  of  persons  of  a  state  to  be  dimin- 

ished for  disqualifying  "all  persons  of  any  race"  (sec. 
25). 

II.  Tenure. 

1.  Every  house  continues  3  years;  but  may  be  sooner  dis- 

solved by  governor-general  (sec.  28). 

2.  Vacancy. 

a.  By  written  resignation. 

6.  For  absence  2  consecutive  months  of  a  session; 

vacancy  filled  by  election  under  a  new  writ  (sec. 

33). 

III.  Qualifications  of  Representatives  Until  Parliament  Other- 
wise Provides  (sec.  34). 

1.  Full  age  of  21  years. 

2.  Qualified  to  vote  for  a  representative,  or  to  become 

such. 

3.  Resident  of  commonwealth  3  years. 

4.  Natural  born  or  for  five  years  a  naturalized  subject 

of  the  king;  the  four  ways  of  being  naturalized  (sec. 
34,  part  II). 

IV.  Qualifications  of  Electors  of  Representatives:  until  par- 
liament otherwise  provides  the  same  as  for  electors  of  mem- 


AUSTRALIA.  123 

bers  of  more  numerous  house  of  state  legislature  (sec.  30) ; 
but  each  has  but  one  vote;  by  federal  statute  women  in  all 
states  have  the  franchise. 

V.  Elections. 

1.  Until    parliament    otherwise    provides    state    laws    to 

determine  the  method  (sec.  31). 

2.  Electoral  districts  (sec.  28). 

3.  Writs;  vacancies,  how  filled  (sees.  32-33). 

VI.  Speaker. 

1.  Elected  by  the  house. 

2.  Vacancy:    by  resignation,  removal,  or  ceasing  to  be  a 

member;  place,  how  filled? 

VII.  Quorum,  One-third  of  the  Whole  Number;  but  parlia- 
ment may  detemine;  questions  decided  by  majority  vote, 
the  speaker  voting  only  in  case  of  tie  (sees.  39-40). 

D.     Both  Houses  (sees.  41-50). 
See  Quick  and  Garran,  267-68,  483-508;  Moore,  113  fC. 

I.  Provision  to  Preserve  the  Franchise  of  Women  (sec.  41) ; 
everywhere  women  now  vote  by  federal  law;  and  by  state 
law  in  all  states  except  Victoria. 

II.  Disqualifications.  -- 

1.  Enumeration  (sees.  43-44). 

2.  Exceptions:    king's  ministers  and  others. 

3.  Vacancies  for  disqualification. 

4.  Penalty  for  sitting  when  not  qualified  (sec.  46). 

5.  Questions  regarding  disqualification  and  disputed  elec- 

tions, how  determined  (sec.  47). 

III.  Salary,  400  pounds;  the  rule  in  the  several  states  (Moore, 
113). 

IV.  Privileges  (sec.  49)  ;  common  law  doctrine  not  admitted 
(Moore,  114). 

V.  Procedure  (sec.  50). 

E.    Legislative  Powers  of  Parliament  (sees.  51-60). 

See  Quick  and  Garran,  268-70,  483-698;    Moore,  117-164.     Compare 
U.  S.  Constitution,  art.  I,  sec.  8;  Canadian  Constitution,  sec.  91. 

I.  Provision  as  to  the  Residuum  of  Powers  (see  chap.  v.  of  con- 
stitution). 


124  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

II.  The  39  Enumerated  General  Powers  (sec.  51)  ;  these  are 
"plenary"  (Quick  and  Garran,  509-10). 

1.  Analysis  (Quick  and  Garran,  509). 

a.  New  and  original  powers. 

6.  Old  powers  previously  exercised  by  the  colonies. 

1)  Some  "exclusively"  vested  in  the  federal  par- 

liament. 

2)  Some  "concurrently"  vested  in  the  federal  and 

state  parliaments:  the  rule  of  construction 
(Story,  Commentaries  J  sec.  438). 

2.  General  interpretation  of  the  more  important  of  these 

powers. 

III.  The  Exclusive  Powers  (sec.  52). 

IV.  Laws  Regarding  Money,  Revenue,  Taxation:  Relative 
Powers  of  the  Houses  (sees.  53-56)  ;  Importance  of  Gover- 
nor-General's Recommendation  (sec.  56). 

V.  Deadlocks  (sec.  57). 

VI.  Assent,  Veto,  Reserved  Bills. 


Section  XLIX.      The  Executive  (sees.  61-70). 
See  Quick  and  Garran,  271,  699-718;  Moore,  224-31. 

I.  The  King;  Represented  by  the  Governor-General  Appointed 
by  the  King;  Power  Extending  to  the  Execution  and  Main- 
tenance of  the  Federal  Constitution  and  Laws  (sec.  61). 

II.  The  Governor-General  (see  Quick  and  Garran,  404-406). 

1.  Share  in  legislation  (assent,  veto,  reserve). 

2.  Appoints   executive   councillors,    ministers,    and    other 

executive  officers. 

3.  Commander-in-chief  of  army  and  navy  (sec.  68). 

III.  The  Federal  Executive  Council,  to  Advise  the  Governor- 
General;  Chosen  and  Appointed  by  the  Governor-General 
and  Holding  During  His  Pleasure;  When  the  Governor- 
General  Acts  "in  Council"  (Moore,  224-25). 

IV.  The  "King's  Ministers  of  State  for  the  Commonwealth" 
(Quick  and  Garran,  709-11). 

1.  They  are  members  of  the  executive  council  appointed 

during  pleasure  of  the  governor-general. 

2.  After  three  months,  a  minister  must  be  a  member  of 


AUSTRALIA.  125 

parliament  (indirect  provision  for  responsible  cabinet 
government) . 

3.  Until  parliament  otherwise  provides,  the  number  not  to 

exceed  seven. 

4.  Salaries  (sec.  66). 

5.  Comparison    with   the   colonial    (state)    cabinets   and 

ministries  (Moore,  227-29). 

6.  Governor-General  Hopetoun's  first  cabinet  (Moore,  230- 

31). 
V.  other  Provisions. 

1.  Appointment  and  removal  of  all  other  executive  officers 

(sec  67). 

2.  Transfer  to  the  commonwealth  of  colonial  departments 

and  executive  powers  (sees.  69-70). 


Section  L.     Judicature^  Finance,  Miscellaneous. 
A,    Federal  Judicature  (sees.  71-80). 
See  Quick  and  Garran,  272-73,  719-810;   Moore,  232-81. 

I.  Courts  (sec.  71). 

1.  Supreme  court  called  high  court  of  Australia;  consist- 

ing of  a  chief  justice  and  not  less  than  two  other 
justices  as  parliament  determines. 

2.  Other  courts  to  be  created  by  parliament. 

3.  Courts    (state)    invested  with  federal   jurisdiction   by 

parliament :  unique  provision. 

II.  Justices  of  the  First  Two  Classes  of  Courts  (sec.  72). 

1.  Appointed  by  the  governor-general  in  council. 

2.  May  be  removed  in  same  way  on  address  from  both 

houses. 

3.  Salary  to  be  fixed  by  parliament. 

III.  Jurisdiction  of  the  High  Court  (sees.  73-80). 

1.  Appellate  jurisdiction  from  all  judgments,  decrees, 
orders,  and  sentences,  subject  to  exceptions  and 
regulations  prescribed  by  parliament,  of 

a.  Any  justice  or  justices  exercising  the  original 
jurisdiction  of  the  high  court. 

5.  Other  federal  courts  or  court  exercising  federal 
jurisdiction. 


126  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

c.  Supreme    court  of  any  state  in  all  questions. 

d.  Interstate  commission  as  to  questions  of  law  only 

(for  examples  of  questions  of  law  and  fact,  see 
Quick  and  Garran,  743-46). 

e.  The    constitutional    function    of    federal     courts 

(Moore,  232  ff.). 

2.  Original     jurisdiction      (sees.     75-76)  :      meaning     of 

"original"  (Quick  and  Garran,  784-88)  :   question 

of  concurrent  jurisdiction. 
a.  In  5  classes  of  cases  enumerated  in  the  constitution 

(sec.  75). 
h.  In  4  classes  of  cases  as  parliament  determines. 

3.  Trial  of  offenses  by  jury   (sec.  80) :    when  trial  takes 

place? 
IV.  Miscellaneous. 

1.  Jurisdiction  of  the  high  court  in  cases  when  appeal 

was  formerly  allowed  from  the  supreme  court  of  a 
state  to  the  king  in  council. 

2.  When  appeal  from  the  high  court  to  the  king  in  council. 

a.  When  on  certificate  of  the  high  court. 

h.  When  on  leave  granted  by  the  king  by  virtue  of 
the  prerogative;  parliament  may  limit  the  mat- 
ters to  which  such  leave  applies. 

3.  Limitation  of  the  original  federal  jurisdiction  by  par- 

liament (sec.  77). 

4.  Parliament   may   confer  rights  to   proceed   against   a 

state  or  the  commonwealth  (sec.  78). 

B.  Finance  and  Trade  (sees.  81-105). 

I.  Consolidated  Revenue  Fund;  Expenditures  Charged  There- 
on; Appropriations  (sees.  81-83). 

II.  Transfer  of  OfiSces  and  Property  from  States  to  Common- 
wealth (sees.  84-85). 

III.  Control  of  Customs,  Excises,  and  Bounties  Passes  to 
Federal  Executive  (sec.  86). 

IV.  Reservation  of  Share  of  Net  Revenue  from  Customs  and 
Excise  for  States  for  Payment  of  Interest  of  State  Debts 
Taken  Over  by  the  Commonwealth  (sec.  87). 

V.  Uniform  Duties;  Free  Trade  between  States;  Temporary 
Provisions  (sees.  88-95). 


AUSTRALIA.  127 

VI.  Financial  Aid  to  Any  State  (sec.  96)  ;  No  Preference  to 
Any  State  (99). 

VII.  Parliament  Must  Establish  an  Interstate  Commission 
(sec.  101). 

1.  Preference  as  to  railways  by  any  state  regulated;  duty 

of  commission  (sec.  102). 

2.  Composition  of  interstate  commission  (sec.  103). 

3.  Saving  of  certain  railway  rates  necessary  for  develop- 

ment of  the  territory  of  any  state  (sec.  104). 

VIII.  Taking  Over  Debts  of  the  States  (sec.  105)  :  the  Strug- 
gle for  Funding  in  the  First  Parliament  (see  Lusk,  in  Rev- 
of  Rev.  (1903),  XXVII,  333  ff.). 

C.  The  mates  (sees.  106-120;  Quick  and  Garran,  276-77,  927-66;  Moore, 

282-309):   Preservation  of  existing  laws  and  constitutions;   con- 
flict of  state  and  federal  laws;   powers  forbidden,  etc. 

D.  New  States:  Grovernment  and  acquisition  of  territories;   alteration 

of   state    limits    (sees.    121-24;    Quick  and  Garran,   277,    967-77; 

Moore,  310-15). 

-»■ 

E.  Miscellaneous:  Seat  of  government;    aborigines  not  counted;    gov- 

ernor's deputy  (sees.  125-27;   Quick  and  Garran,  277-78,  978-84). 

F.  Amendments  (sec.  128;  Quick  and  Garran,  278,  985-95;  Moore,  316- 

23). 


.     CHAPTER  VI. 

SELECT    REFERENCES    FOR    GERMAN    AND    LATIN    FEDERAL 

INSTITUTIONS. 


Section  LI.      Literature  Available  for  Study  of  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution  of  the  German  Empire. 

I.  Bibliographies. 

Hart  (A.  B.),  Federal  Government  (1891),  68-76,  187-188. 
Levermore    (C.  H.)   and  Dewey   (D.  R.),  Political  History  Since 
1815   (1889),  72-8L 

ISfew  International  Encyclopaedia,  VIII,  448-49.  References  iti  the 
works  of  Amdt,  Howard,  Lowell,  Schulze,  Dareste,  I,  159-160; 
Lalor,  II,  367;  and  in  other  treatises.  See  also  the  Special 
Card  Catalogue  of  the  Department  of  Political  Science  and 
Sociology. 

II.  Geography. 

Ausant,  Atlas  Historique. 

Berghaus,  Deutschland  Seit  Hundert  Jahren  (1859-62). 

Century  Atlas. 

Droysen,  Atlas,  Plates  22,  26,  31,  34,  38,  42,  46,  49,  50,  51,  59. 

Freeman,  Historical  Geography,  I,  chap,  viii,  sec.  2,  II,  maps  xxii- 

xxxiii,  passim. 
Hertslet,  Map  of  Europe  hy  Treaty. 
Rhode,  Historishcher  Schul-Atlas,  Plates  xi,  xvii. 
Standard  atlases  and  encyclopaedias. 

III.  German  Federations,  1806-1870:  Confederation  of  the 
Khine,  1806-13;  German  Federation,  1815-66;  Zollverein, 
1834-71;  North  German  Federation,  1866-1870. 

Baring-Gould   (S.),  Germany  Present  and  Past  (2  vols.,  1879). 
Behr,  Systematische  Darstellung  des  rheinischen  Bundes  (1808). 
Binding  (K.),  Die  Grundung  des  Norddeutschen  Bundes  (1889). 
Bismarck  (Otto  von),  Gedanken  und  Erinnerungen  (2  vols.,  1898); 

Eng.  translation  by  A.  J.  Butler  (1899). 
Bryce   (J.),  Holy  Roman  Empire   (new  ed.,  1904). 
Duff  (G.),  Studies  in  European  Politics. 
Dyer  (T.  H.),  Modern  Europe  (1861-64). 
Falke,  G^schichte  des  deutschen  Zollvereins   (1869). 
Fyffe  (C.  A.),  Modern  Europe  (2d  American  ed.,  2  vols.,  1887-90). 
Hahn,  Der  Krieg  Deutschlands  gegen  Frankreich  (1871). 
Hahn,  Zwei  Jahre  preussisch-deutscher  Politik,  1866-1867    (1868). 

(128) 


GERMAN  EMPIRE.  129 

Hiersemenzel  (C),  Das  Verfassungs-  und  Verwaltungsrecht  des 
Norddeutschen  Bundes  und  des  deutschen  Zoll-  und  Handels- 
verein  (2  vols.,  1868-70). 

Hiersemenzel  (C),  Die  Yerfassung  des  Norddeutschen  Bundes 
(1867). 

Hudson  (R.),  "The  German  Federation,"  in  Political  Science  Quar- 
terly (1891),  VI,  424-38. 

Kaltenborn  (C.  von),  Oeschichte  der  deutschen  Bundesverhdltnisse 
und  Einheits^estrebungen  von  1806  Ms  1856  (2  vols.,  1857). 

Kloeppel  (P.),  Dreissig  Jahre  deutscher  VerfassungsgeschichtCf 
1867-1897   (1900). 

Kliiber  (J,  L.),  Akten  des  Wiener  Kongresses  (8  vols.,  1816). 
Kliiber  (J.  L.),  Staatsrecht  des  Rheinhundes  (1808). 
Kliippel   (K.),  Oeschichte  der  deutschen  Einheitshestrehungen  his 
zu  ihrer  Erfullung,  18^8-1871    (2  vols.,  1872). 

Malet,  Overthrow  of  the  Oerman  Confederation  (1870). 
Meyer   (G.),  Grundzuge  des  Norddeutschen  Bundesrechts    (1868). 
Miiller  (W.),  Political  History  of  Recent  Times,  1816-1875  (1882). 
Miinster,  Der  Norddeutsche  Bund  und  dessen  Uebergang   (1868). 
Nicolson,  Sketch  of  the  German  Constitution  and  of  the  Events 

in  Germany  from  1815  to  1871   (1875). 
Packisch,  Oeschichte  des  Zollvereins  (1869). 
Thudichum,  Yerfassung srecht  des  Norddeutschen  Bundes  und  des 

deutschen  Zollvereins   (1870). 
Treitschke    (H.  von),  Deutsche  Oeschichte  im  neunzehnten  Jahr- 

hundert  (1870-85). 
Waltz  (G.),  Grundzuge  der  Politik  (1862). 
Zalke  (J.),  Oeschichte  des  deutschen  Zollvereins  (1869). 
IV.  Constitution  of  the  Empire. 

Aegide  and  Klauhold,  Das  Staatsarchiv  (1866  seq.). 
Archiv  fiir  das  offentliche  Recht   (1886  seq.). 
Arndt   (A.),  Das  Staatsrecht  des  Deutschen  Reiches   (1901).     An 
excellent  analytical  treatise  on  the  constitution  and  law,  with 
citation  of  the  sources  and  the  literature. 
Arndt  (A.),  Yerfassung  des  Deutschen  Reichs,  Mit  Einleitung  und 

Kommentar  (2d  ed.,  1902). 
Arndt   (A.),  Das  Yerordnung srecht  des  Deutschen  Reiches. 
Auerbach,  Reich  und  Yerfassung   (1871). 
Binding    (K.),   Die  rechtUche   Stellung   des  Kaisers   im   heutigen 

Deutschen  Reiche   (1898). 
Bornhak   (C),  Grundriss  des  deutschen  Staatsrecht   (1907). 
Burgess  (J.  W.),  Political  Science  and  Constitutional  Law  (2  vols., 

1890). 
Burgess   (J.  W.),  "Tenure  and  Powers  of  the  German  Emperor,'* 

in  Political  Science  Quarterly  (1888),  III,  334-84. 
Buy   (Jean  du),   Two  Aspects  of  the  German  Constitution   (New 

Haven,  1894). 
Dareste  de  la  ChavaHne  (F.  R.  and  P.),  Les  Constitutions  Modernes 
(2  vols.,  1883). 
9 


130  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

Demombynes   (G.),  Constitutions  Europ^ennes  (2  vols.,  1883). 
Fischer,  Das  Recht  des  Deutschen  Kaisers   (1895). 
Garner    (J.   W.),    "The   German   Judiciary,"    in   Political   Science 
Quarterly,  xvii    (1902),  490-552,  XVIII    (1903),   512-64. 

G^rber  (P.),  La  Condition  de  V Alsace  Lorraine  dans  V Empire  Ah 
lemand  (1906). 

Goodnow  (F.  J.),  Comparative  Administrative  Law  (2  vols.,  1893). 

Hanel  (A.),  Staatsrecht  (1892). 

Hanel   (A.),  Studien  zum  deutschen  Staatsrecht   (1873-80). 

Hauser,  Yerfassung   (1871). 

Held,  Yerfassung   (1872). 

Held,  Das  Kaiserthum  als  Rechtsbegrift   (1879). 

Hensel,  Die  Stellung  des  Reichskanzlers. 

Hirth,  Annalen  des  Deutschen  Retches   (1868  seq.). 

Howard  (Burt  Estes),  The  German  Empire  (1906).     Best  treatise 

in  English;   an  excellent  guide  for  university  study;   contains 

classified  lists  of  authorities  in  foot-notes. 

Howard  (Burt  Estes),  "Alsace  Lorraine,"  in  Pol.  8c.  Quarterly 
(1906),  XXI,  447-74. 

Kloeppel  (P.),  See  above,  division  III. 

Laband   (P.),  Das  deutsche  Kaiserthum   (1896). 

Laband    (P.),   Die   Wandlungen   der   deutschen   Reichsverfassung 

(1895). 
Laband   (P.),  Das  Staatsrecht  des  Deutschen  Reiches   (4th  ed.,  4 

vols.,  1901). 
Leidig   (E.),  Preussisches  Staatsrecht  (1891). 
Lorenz    (O.),   Kaiser   Wilhelm   und   die  Begrilndung   des   Reichs^ 

1866-1871   (1902). 
Lowell   (A.  L.),  Governments  and  Parties  in  Continental  Europe 

(2   vols.,    1896),    I,   232-85,    II,    1-69.     A  scholarly   discussion; 

useful  as  preparation  for  more  detailed  study. 

Mejer  (O.),  Einleitung  in  das  deutsche  Staatsrecht  (2d  ed.,  1884). 

Meyer  (G.),  Staatsrecht  (1878). 

Meyer  (G.),  Lehrhuch  des  deutschen  Staatsrechtes  (5th  ed.,  1899). 

Mohl,  Reichsstaatsrecht  (1873). 

Robinson  (J.  H.),  "The  German  Bundesrath,"  in  Pud.  University 
of  Pa.,  PuJ).  Law  Series,  III,  No.  1.  A  very  important  mono- 
graph. 

Ronne,  Staatsrecht  (1876-77). 

Rontie,  Yerfassungsrecht  (1882). 

Schulze   (H.  J.  F.),  Lehrduch  des  deutschen  Staatsrechtes   (1881, 

1886).     One  of  the  best  treatises;   literature  is  cited. 
Seydel  (M.),  Commentar  zur  Yerfassungsurkunde  fur  das  Deutsche 

Reich   (2d  ed.,  1897). 
Sybel    (H.   von),   Die  Begrilndung   des  Deutschen  Reiches   durch 

Y^ilhelm  I.  (7  vols.,  1892-1899). 
Sybel    (H.   von),  English  translation  of  the  first  edition  by  Perrin 

(1890-97). 


LATIN   REPUBLICS.  131 

Treitschke  (H.  von),  Historische  und  politische  Aufsatze  (3  vols., 

1871). 
Zorn  (P.),  Das  Stadtsrecht  des  Deutschen  Retches  (2  vols.,  2d  ed., 

1895). 

Short  Accounts:  Burgess,  in  Political  Science  Quarterly,  III  (Mar., 
1888),  123-135;  Howard  (Burt  Estes),  "Trial  by  Jury  in  Ger- 
many," in  Pol.  Sc.  Quart.,  XIX  (1904),  650-72;  Geffcken,  in 
Contemporary  Review,  XLIX  (Feb.,  1886),  280-94,  L  (Aug., 
1886),  277-94,  LI  (April,  1887),  586-601,  LII  (Dec,  1887),  880- 
94) ;  Schulte,  Lehrbuch,  I,  sees.  76-79;  Woolsey,  Political  Science, 
II,  204-208;  Calvo,  sees.  51,  72;  Wbeaton,  Commentaries; 
Bryee,  Holy  Roman  Empire  (new  ed.,  1904),  447-505;  Hudson, 
"The  German  Empire,"  in  Pol.  8c.  Quart,  X,  656-63;  Tuttle, 
in  Harper's,  LXIII  (Sept.,  1881),  691;  Wilson,  The  State 
(rev.  ed.,  1903),  253  ff.;  Crane  and  Moses,  Politics,  Index  at 
"German  Empire";  Maevane's  Seignobos,  Political  History  of 
Europe  Since  1814,  456-517;  Arndt,  Verfassung,  28  ff.;  Zorn, 
"Constitutional  Position  of  the  German  Emperor,"  in  Annals^ 
of  Am.  Academy  (1899),  XIV,  73-93. 

Text  of  the  Constitution:  Burgess,  Political  Science  and  Constitu- 
tional Law,  I,  285-312;  Howard,  German  Empire,  403-35; 
Lowell,  Governments  and  Parties,  II,  355-77;  James,  in  Pub^. 
Uni.  of  Pa.,  Polit.  Econ.  and  Pub.  Law  Series,  No.  7  (1890); 
Arndt,  Verfassung  des  Deutschen  Reichs,  1-27;  New  York: 
Convention  Manual,  Part  II,  vol.  Ill,  257-86;  and  the  refer- 
ences in  Hart,  74. 


Section  LII.     Literature  Available  for  the  Study  op  the 
Federal  Constitutions  of  Mexico  and  Argentina. 

I.  United  States  of  Mexico. 

1.  Bibliographies. 

Hart  (A.  B.),  Federal  Government,  81. 

Neiv  Iternational  Encyclopaedia,  XIII,  416-17. 

Bancroft  (H.  H.),  Mexico  (6  vols.),  see  list  of  authorities  in 

each  volume. 
Winsor   (J.),  Narrative  and  Critical  History,  VIII,  266  ff. 
Foster  (W.  E.),  Reference  Lists,  No.  90. 
Clarke    (R.),  Bihliotheca  Americana,  232-34. 

2.  Geography. 
See  Hart,  81. 

3.  Text  of  the  constitution. 

Abbott  (G.  D.),  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  283-309. 

British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  XIII,  695,  704,  XXV,  683, 
XLVII,  472. 

Dareste,  Constitutions  Modernes,  II,  475-507;  New  York  Con- 
vention Manual,  Part  II,  vol.  Ill,  319-56. 

Moses,  in  Annals  of  Am.  Academy  (1891),  II,  1-47. 


132  FEDERAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

4.  Constitution  and  history. 

Abbott   (G.  D.),  Mexico  and  the  United  States  (1869). 

Bancroft  (H.  H.),  History  of  Mexico  (1885-1888),  V,  VI. 

Baticroft  (H,  H.),  Popular  History  of  the  Mexican  People 
(1887). 

Bastian,   in  Sammlung  wissenschaftlicher  Vortrdge    (1869). 
Ill,  463-502. 

Castro,  Republic  of  Mexico  in  1882   (1882). 

Conckling   (H.),  Mexico  and  the  Mexicans   (1882). 

Cubas   (G.),  Repuhlic  of  Mexico   (1876). 

Dunn,  Mexico  and  Her  Resources  (1889). 

Hale,  The  Story  of  Mexico   (1891). 

Lester,  The  Mexican  Republic  (1878). 

Mayer,  Mexico   (1853). 

Nail   (A.  H.),  Short  History  of  Mexico  (1890). 

Richthofen,  Aeusseren  und  inneren  Zustdnde  der  Repuhlik 
von  Mexico   (1859). 

Salinas  (D.),  The  Riches  of  Mexico  and  Its  Institutions  (1893). 

Van  Bruyssel,  Les  iStats-Unis  Mexicains  (1880). 

Wells,  Study  of  Mexico  (1887). 

Short  Accounts:  New  International  Encyclopaedia,  XIII,  411- 
13;  Lalor,  II,  833-37;  Morgan,  in  N.  A.  Review  (1883), 
CXXXVI,  409-19;  Dareste,  II,  475-77;  Statesman's  Year 
Booh.  See  Poole's  Index;  and  the  Special  Card  Cat- 
alogue. 

II.  Argentine  Republic. 

1.  Bibliographies. 
Dareste,  II,  525. 

Hart  (A.  B.),  Federal  Government,  84. 
Lalor,  Cyclopaedia,  I,  118. 
'New  International  Encyclopaedia,  I,  782. 

Special  Card  Catalogue  of  the  Department  of  Political  Science 
and  Sociology. 

2.  Geography. 

See  the  standard  wall-maps,  atlases,  and  encyclopaedias. 

3.  Text  of  the  constitution. 

British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  XIV,  942,  XLII,  779,  LII, 

1066. 
Dareste,   II,   527-52;    New   York   Convention  Manual,   Part   II, 

vol.  Ill,  3-28. 

4.  Constitution  and  history. 

Akers   (C.  E.),  History  of  South  America  (1905). 
Alberdi,  Organizacion  che  la  Confederacion  (1858). 
Butterworth    (H.),  South  America   (2  vols.,  1898). 
Carpenter   (F.  G.),  South  America  (1903). 


LATIN  REPUBLICS.  133 

Child,    Spanish- American   Republics    (1891). 

Clemens,  La  Plata  Country  (1866). 

Dawson  (T.  C),  The  South  American  Republics  (2  vols., 
1903). 

Deberle   (A.),  Histoire  de  VAmerique  du  Sud   (3d  ed.,  1897). 

Greger,  Die  Republik  Argentina  (1883). 

Guilaine,  La  Republique  Argentine  (1889). 

King,  Twenty-Four  Years  in  the  Argentine  Republic  (1846). 

Mulhall,  Handbook  of  the  River  Plate  Republics   (1893). 

Napp,  Argentine  Republic   (1876). 

Paxson  (F.  L.),  Independence  of  the  South  American  Re- 
publics (1903). 

Seeber   (F.),  Ch-eat  Argentina   (1904). 

Turner,  Argentina  and  the  Argentines  (1892). 

Van  Bruyssel,  La  Republique  Argentine   (1888). 

Short  Accounts:  Gallenga,  South  America  (1881),  chaps.,  xiii- 
XV ;  Dareste,  II,  525-526;  Lalor,  I,  114-118;  Calvo,  sec.  59; 
Daireaux,  in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  3d  ser.,  XI  (1875), 
877-90;  New  International  Encyclopaedia,  I,  779  ff.  See 
Poole's  Index  and  the  Special  Card  Catalogue. 


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